Alcohol Drinking in Germany

Alcohol has the tendency to be a cause of death for a vast number of people. The consumption of alcohol can also have a consequence on your brain which in turn makes you tremble at the same time as loosing control over all of your senses, and it can also kill parts of your brain cells. What is more is that alcohol consumption can cause your liver to depreciate and not function appropriately.Liver transplants are not easy to take place and they rarely take place. Even if it does take place it is hard for a person with liver transplant to survive for too long. Even though it is general knowledge that alcohol consumption has the tendency to kill people, still there are millions of people who consume great amounts of alcohol on daily basis (Martina, Gert, Eckardt and Klaus, 2003).As known to all, Germany is perhaps one of the most alcohol-drinking nations from all over Europe, ranking fifth right after Luxembourg, Hungary, Czech Republic and Ireland. Only a small percent of about five pe rcent of the people of Germany seem to call themselves as teetotalers, which are people who   completely abstain themselves from the use of alcoholic beverages, ranking it, after Luxembourg as the European nation that has the lowest percentage of people who do not drink at all.With reference According to the World Health Organization, and as has been proved by a vast number of studies, the whole of Europe is said to have the highest amount of alcohol consumption with comparison to all of the other parts of the world rating it per capita consumption as twice as high as compared with the average of the entire world.AnalysisAs has been mentioned before, the most prevalent problem in the whole of Germany is said to be of alcohol consumption abd dependance on it as well. This is a statement that has been verified by Peter Lang, who is basically the head of drug prevention and abuse at the German Center for Health Education (Ryan, 2006).Basically alcohol abuse is said to be the most com mon as well as the largest of all social problems within Germany. As is known to all, Bildunterschrift:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  dangerous and detrimental using up is without a doubt connected with a number of psychosomatic, communal and physical condition problems, and in addition has a considerable economic bang on the social order as a whole.In the words of Peter Lang, â€Å"It's difficult to say what is causing this, because alcohol is more or less an accepted drug in a lot of circumstances, like for parties or other social occasions. If you compare Germany to countries like the US, there is drinking in public that is different and more accepted. Consuming alcohol during the day is really more accepted here in Germany,† (Ryan, 2006).

Reading Response : Abortion in India Essay

Rushdie, Salman. â€Å"Abortion in India†. Essays. 2nd Edition. Kelly, Joseph. New York; Norton, 2008. 279-282. Print. The articles topic is about the tragedy of abortion of female fetuses in modern day India. I believe the author is trying to say that unnecessary abortions are a type of genocide and a true tragedy. Proving points on both sides saysing that having female abortions could actually be beneficial in that it would decrease overpopulation. He then argued against this belief by stating that in one generation’s time there would be a girl shortage which could cause many problems, including increasing the sexism of Indian society and denying India of all of the wonderful things that women have to offer. The most interesting part of this essay was where Rushdie states that, â€Å"†¦Fundamentally it’s the result of modern technology being placed at the service of medieval social attitudes†. I found this to be a very insightful line and thought it summed up the problem in an interesting and thoughtful way. Although Rushdie is pro-choice, it does not mean he supports women having an abortion simply beacuse they dont want to have a daughter. What should be done when a women uses her power over her own body to discriminate againt female fetuses? Although he respects a womans right to chose, he also strongly believes that this practice is both immoral and unethical. I did not find any sections of this essay to be confusing or problematic. 1)Voluable- Speaking or spoken incessantly and fluently 2)Flamboyant- Tending to attract attention because of their exuberance, confidence, and stylishness. 3)Myraid- A countless or extremely great number 4)Anathematized- To proclaim an anathema on: curse

Lil Wayne vs Drake Essay

Music is something that everyone loves and some people go to music to calm themselves down when their stressed, angry, sad, or happy just in general. Personally, I listen to a lot of music, so I’m choosing Lil Wayne vs. Drake. Lil Wayne thinks of himself as the â€Å"Best rapper alive†; & yet he is known to be one of the best rappers according to magazines, record sales, and etc. Lil Wayne is also in charge of Young Money Entertainment which is an American record label founded by rapper Lil Wayne. Drake is also rising to the top very quickly, but Drake is a part of Young Money Entertainment also. They both are featured in each other’s song and a lot of people love them rapping together. They both rap about similar things such as, fame, drugs, money, cars, and women; however even though they rap about similar things. They have completely different ways of saying it. Wayne is more outspoken I’d say and he is more straight forward with whatever message he’s trying to prove to you. Drake makes you think a little more about whatever message he’s trying to deliver. I actually like how drake phrases some of the things he says. Wayne focuses on his analogies more I believe when he raps, verses drake focuses on more just getting the message out. Wayne uses his imagination when he raps, but drake actually paints the picture. I’d say that Drake has 2 sides to him; he has the rap side and he has the singing side. Drake is known for connecting with women through his songs, words, his real life problems, and his voice that almost every girl loves. Drake is more open when he raps and he explains to you how girls have broke his heart, how he’s had people doubt him in life and his music career, and he isn’t afraid to admit that sometimes life hurts. He makes you feel like he too has been in the same situation like he’s actually felt pain like normal people without millions of dollars do. Lil Wayne will talk about something seriously hearting him in maybe about 3 or 4 songs, but other than that Wayne gives you the image that everything in his world is perfect. He makes you want to feel what it’s like to have millions of dollars, and cars, clothes, women and etc. , but in reality it’s not really like that for the average person. That’s why more people feel like they can relate more to Drake, because he talks about real life situations and pain in a lot of his songs. Both, Drake and Wayne have been nominated for plenty of different awards on the different shows, and they have also won quite a few of those nominations, especially Lil Wayne. Wayne helped Drake get to the where he was at, he showed him a way and now Drake is so popular he probably would be okay on his own; but they all work together as a team, that’s why they’re all apart of Young Money Entertainment. In conclusion, we could keep comparing and contrasting both Drake and Lil Wayne all day, but in the end all that matters is that they both make great music, and they are both listened to and enjoyed by millions and millions of people. There so much alike in the end to where it would balance out anyways. They are a great team together and they are both very successful. However if I had to chose which one I preferred to listen to more, I think I’d have to chose Lil Wayne, â€Å"The best rapper alive†.

Hire With your Head Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hire With your Head - Essay Example Additionally, there are also legal costs and ethical considerations any organization might face due to a poor hiring process. It, therefore, is imperative to make the process as perfect as possible through asking the right question, testing the correct skills and ascertaining the best qualifications. In ordinary situations, finding good people that match expectations prove difficult. As a result, most organizations stumble to the ground despite having qualified individuals (Alder 178). All these problems point back to the hiring process, which might be expensive with regards to opportunity and money. In this light, the paper takes a deep insight at chapter 6 of Lou Alder’s book Hire with your head. †¢ Evidently, Lou Alder is a senior corporate executive experienced in finding, evaluating, hiring and assimilating new employees into the work environment. Through his book Hire with your head, a systematic approach prevails for discovering and bringing on board new employees of exceptional skills and productivity. Notably, the hiring process is complicated by Alders book simplifies the continuous process. †¢ Interviewers often mistake the first candidates and approve them for the strategic positions. In essence, Alder regards, these simple mistakes as serious hiring problems that retain the wrong candidates while the right candidates face expulsion. The first interview is an avenue for collecting information and not a decision-making platform. Any interview that induces choice of options at the first stage stagnates or change the hiring process.

Liver Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Liver Disease - Essay Example It is strategically placed between the gut and the rest of the body and hence acts as a filter and does not allow bacteria to enter our blood stream (Reichen). The liver produces and secretes a fluid called bile that enters the intestine. This helps in digestion and absorption. Bile is clear yellow to golden-brown and contains water, electrolytes (salts), cholesterol, bile salts (detergents), phospholipids, and proteins (Everson & Weinberg). Liver can be affected by various types of diseases – some of which can be since birth or some may acquire it during the course of life. The most common liver diseases are jaundice and hepatitis A and C. When the bilrubin count in the body goes beyond the specified normal limit, a person is said to be affected with jaundice (Beckingham & Ryder). When a person has jaundice, bilrubin becomes visible within the sclera, skin, and mucous membranes. Jaundice can be of different types depending upon the intensity to which the liver is affected. Accordingly, it is categorized as prehepatic, hepatic, or posthepatic. In prehepatic jaundice, bilrubin is produced faster than the liver is capable of handling it. Unconjugated bilrubin is insoluble and cannot be excreted through the urine. This is normally found when patients are anemic. Posthepatic jaundice is also known as obstructive jaundice, in which the bilrubin is conjugated and soluble. This is excreted in the urine due to which the urine is dark in color. At the same time, the stool is pale in color because the bilrubin is unable to enter the gut region. In hepatic jaundice, both conjugated and unconjugated bilrubin concentration rises, due to which the urine and stool remain or normal color. Nevertheless, the color of stool and urine should not be the determinants of the hepatic condition of the liver, as these could be affected due to other reasons. When the alanine transaminase activity

An investigation into the current success factors for small and medium Essay

An investigation into the current success factors for small and medium enterprises in Thailand - Essay Example That is, identifying those characteristics of the enterprise relating to its management, relationships with other entities, contextual variables, etc. that either lead to or contribute in some way to the enterprise being successful. This research thus makes use of the construct of ‘success factor’, which is also mentioned in the hypothesis. The success factors themselves are qualitative because they are not quantifiable. These are possible underlying factors, which could indirectly contribute to the success of the SME based on the information gathered during the literature review. Examples are as a highly knowledgeable manager or a strong link to a supportive larger enterprise so they are not apparent as such. The success however, is measurable, for example, in terms of total sales growth, number of customers, and amount of profits as done by Vichitdhanabadee et al. (2009) or volume of exports. The major research question, which derives directly from the stated purpose o f the study, has been framed as follows: What are the underlying success factors for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Thailand?The major hypothesis that will be tested in the quantitative phase of the study will be: There is a significant degree of positive underlying success factors that are contributing to the success of the SME. We assume that it is the preponderance of underlying success factors, such as those identified in Chapter One that lead to the success of a SME. A number of null hypotheses can be constructed, as in the two examples below, for testing the validity of the major hypothesis based on measurable quantities. There is no causal relationship between the value of capital and business performance. There is no causal relationship between the size of the enterprise in terms of the number of employees and total sales. 3.3 Research design and method This study will combine both quantitative and qualitative methods for the data collection and data analysis. It will thus take a mixed method approach, as il lustrated in Figure 1. These will then be compared and combined to construct a composite model of the study findings. This research design is shown in the figure below. It is to be noted that the quantitative phase will commence first followed by the qualitative phase. This will therefore be an explanatory sequential model. Figure 1: Mixed method (explanatory sequential) research design to be employed During the quantitative phase, data will be collected from the return of questionnaires from a mail-administered survey. During the qualitative phase, data will be collected by conducting a few case studies, which will involve carrying out interviews of Thai SME managers. In addition, some document analyses will also be conducted for gathering relevant information, such as from company profiles, reports and websites. The analysis of the quantitative data will be in the form of descriptive statistics of the data gathered from the survey. Descriptive statist

Imperialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Imperialism - Essay Example A positive outcome is seen in one document entitled "Modern Progressive nations,† this file shows what larger nations gave to smaller colonies. The nations constructed roads, canals, and railways for them. Exposed telegraph and the newspaper to them, established educational facilities for them, shared with them the sanctification of their civilization, and generally made them economized. After this happened, they belonged to modern culture. Another affirmative effect is realized in document three known as "Colonial Governments and Missionaries.† It expresses the way in which the colonial governments presented improved medical precaution and better techniques of sanitation. Then new crops were introduced; tools and farming skills, which boasted the rise of food production. Such changes meant few mortality rates were experienced and also an overall improvement on the state of living was seen in those smaller colonies. They could now live longer and experience better sanitat ion related to former imperialism. The Great War for equality just as how Hitler viewed and referred it as the Great War for fascism, is being battled out in Africa as viciously as anywhere else. This is not only a problem of strategy. The opposing imperialism's need Africa, just for the sake of the continent, a point in which the Democratic propagandists discount with the Olympian sublimity of complete hypocrisy or complete ignorance. Hitler says plainly that he desires his living spaced. But allow that to pass. What we need to do is to state some few facts concerning Africa, its role in imperialist frugality, then its future in a socialist domain. One major issue is the world market in which capitalism has by far created that we shall forcefully find ourselves tackling fundamental problems of the current society and the answer of the permanent calamity not just in Africa but the entire world. Until the year 1914, the British bourgeoisie did not have any slight idea of the revolutionary ferocity which capitalism was harboring in its bosom, especially in the colonies. One obscure Russian radical exile named Lenin inscribed confidently the issues about the inevitable occurrence of the proletariat who were in India and also China, as some of the leaders in theemerging nationalist revolutions. In contrast, neither world publicist nor British politician worried about that. It is practically valuable to re-read what some of these wise people of thirty years ago always

Portfolio Artifacts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Portfolio Artifacts - Assignment Example The presentation was careful to use a large font size of size 30 so as to ensure that the presentation will clearly be visible to an audience of that size. A key untapped potential of the program project is its expansion into offering counseling services to victims of child abuse and neglect. These services can be offered to persons who were abused or neglected when they were children and still suffer from the effects of their experiences, and also to child victims who have undergone the trauma of maltreatment and abuse. The program can also look into ways of offering joint counseling services to both the parents or guardians convicted of abusing their children, and the children who were being subjected to the neglect and maltreatment. If implemented, this will serve to assist family units to reunite, avoid breakups and mend faster. This is because the children will get a chance of rebuilding their broken confidence in their guardians or parents in a controlled environment (Mannarino & Deblinger,

Management (wider environment) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Management (wider environment) - Essay Example e therefore being pressurised to consider the welfare of the communities within the environs of their operations particularly among the economically and physically challenged communities as part of their corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Among the developing countries, TNCs are looked upon as the critical stimulus for growth with far more essential impact than local governments often mired in corruption and mismanagement. The Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia defines globalisation as ‘the process by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, is becoming standardized around the world (Britannica.com, 2009). The Bankingdictionary.com describes it in financial terms as the ‘interdependence of buyers and sellers of financial instruments in financial centres around the world.’ The Small Business Encyclopedia however gives it a broader meaning, describing it as ‘the process by which the economies of countries around the world become increasingly integrated over time. This integration occurs as technological advances expedite the trade of goods and services, the flow of capital, and the migration of people across international borders.’ (Bhagwati, 2004) According to a World Bank definition, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), ‘is the commitment of businesses to behave ethically and to contribute to sustainable economic development by working with all relevant stakeholders to improve their lives in ways that are good for business, the sustainable development agenda, and society at large’ (World Bank, 2001). Marks & Spencer (M&S) is a UK based retailer with 895 stores in over forty countries though only a third overseas. Its main product lines include garments, foodstuff, household goods, hospitality, furniture, apparatus, beauty, banking and energy products (Marks & Spencer, 2009). Although it has in recent years virtually stabilized, it had turbulent times in the 1970s to late 1990s when it

The Impact of Women Teachers on Girls Education Essay

The Impact of Women Teachers on Girls Education - Essay Example The cause and effect theory is given significance by the writer as women teachers in the schools will help in projecting a safe and secure environment for the girls in the schools. The high quality of education and mutual respect amid the genders will be improved and nurtured from the childhood. In accordance with the data from UNESCO, it is observed that countries with 20% women teachers have less number of girls’ education (Kirk, 2008). The writer argues that increase in the women teachers will give rise to better policies and security for women from the society. The link amid women teachers and girls’ education is strong due to the presence of the conservative society where the certain families might not want their girls to be taught by men. With the increase in the retention rate, the female perspective will be valued and advocated, increasing the opportunity and safety of women through education. The article explores the cause and effect theory of appointing women teachers which might lead to the increase in female education in schools. The gender equality concept will be majorly followed by the schools with the increase in the women teachers. The research conducted in this article is qualitative in nature and also ethnographic as the cultural values are also taken into consideration when evaluating the impact of girl’s education. Various literature reviews and cultural dimensions were taken into consideration while exploring girl’s education and the position of women in the society in a number of Asian and African countries. The main issue faced by the article is that it is based on the individual ability of the researchers as it is qualitative in nature. The methods used can at times be biased as they depend on the discretion of the researchers.  

MSU Grade Module on Mobile using Android OS Essay Example for Free

MSU Grade Module on Mobile using Android OS Essay The proposed system entitled MSU Grade Module on Mobile using Android OS is a mobile version of the current Grade Module of Mindanao State University. This system enables the instructor to input grades and update INC grades at any location and at any time. Obtaining the Grade Module password is also done using mobile connection. Reasons: * With the convenience of an Android-powered mobile phone, the instructor does not need to physically go to the clerk to request for Grade Module password. * The Grade Module password is sent through email which is more secure than printed Grade Module stub. * The instructor does not need to be in their respective department or in the university to input and/or update grades. * The scarcity of available computers in the university is no longer a concern. * If the instructor is away for seminars, vacations, and other reasons, the instructor no longer needs to request favour from other instructors to input and/or update grades for them, thus the accountability of the grade resides only to the instructor in-charge and lessen bothering other instructors. * With this kind of application, an instructor can become invisible from students who keep following him/her because of various reasons. Possible Problem: * Not all instructors have an Android-powered mobile phone. * Not all instructors maintain an email address, especially those who are not technology-savvy. * Internet connection is not stable for instructors who want to input and/or update grades within the university. * The availability of online modules of the university is not stable.

Rooms and University Essay Example for Free

Rooms and University Essay My first day at University is a very important and memorable day in my life. I was waiting all the summer in 2011 to enter at the university at January 2012. That day i was so excited at as well as I was very nervous because it was my first day in the university and I didnt know any person. But at the end my first day in the university was wonderful. I had no idea how to arrive to my classroom and which room will be our class room. So I had to ask to the reception, where I was going to take classes. This person was very nice and told me the right direction. I walked to the building, and when I arrived I saw some people and I felt strange. I come up to to one girl and I asked for the classroom and I discovered that she is my close friend Shima from my school and college level and we were in the same group and I felt less nervous and comfortable . Then we went to the class room. When we began our classes, our lecturer first introduced herself and then we introduce our self in the class room. At the time of introducing all our classmates were quiet, nobody talked. I approached with two other girls they were completely unknown to me. I introduced myself, then they did the same and we began to know more about each other, like where we were from or what we did. After that, we spent the rest of the day together until we had to go home. I always remember this particular day, the reason behind it, it gave me a chance to meet with new people and making new friends. From my point of view, it is normal to be nervous in the first day at university but, there was a happy ending. So I think my first day at university was a fantastic day and it will be a memorable day in my life as said earlier.

Reflective Essay on Art and Famous Artists

Reflective Essay on Art and Famous Artists The Olive Trees† by Vincent van Gogh caught my eye as soon as I saw it. Van Gogh has always fascinated me with his dramatic use of color and the thick texture he used while painting. After doing some research, I learned that he painted â€Å"The Olive Trees† in 1890 after voluntarily entering an asylum at Saint-Remy (MoMA). It has been said that van Goghs talent flourished in the last two years of his life while at Saint-Remy. Although he died at the ripe age of thirty-seven, he was a busy man. He created over 200 oil paintings during his life. Some of his most famous pieces are The Starry Night, Portrait of Dr. Gachet, and Irises (Artquotes). â€Å"The Olive Trees† is an oil on canvas painting that measures 28 5/8 x 36† (MoMA). This piece is in the post-impressionist style. Post-impressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its lack of emotions. Artists continued to use vivid colors, thick application of paint, distinctive brush strokes, and real-life subject matter (Topofart). The post-impressionist style is seen throughout most of van Goghs works and especially in â€Å"The Olive Trees†. Van Gogh used thick oil paint combined with wide rough brushstrokes to create texture in this piece. This technique called â€Å"impasto† is evident in many of his other works such as â€Å"The Starry Night† (Frank). The subject of the picture is olive trees. These trees could be found all around the asylum he admitted himself to. This painting seems to have a lighter mood than some of the other paintings he completed right before his death. It seems that he, â€Å"found happiness† or something that got his mind off of the deep depression and mental sickness he had. The viewer can see it in this piece by looking at the use of color and dancing lines he used to create a happy, but mellow mood in the piece. This technique can also be seen in his other works such as â€Å"Starry Night†. Not only did he use color and line to lighten the mood of the piece, but he also used shape. Van Gogh painted the olive trees, mountains, and clouds all by using organic shape. This creates a flow of line, mass, and space. By using these effects, van Gogh creates a visual rollercoaster for the viewer to follow. At first glance, the viewers eyes roll from the grass up to the olive trees, and then across the blue colored mountains. By using this flow of line, the painting has a unique balance to it which allows no space to appear empty. The painting seems lively and the olive trees create a mood of dancing across the landscape. Van Gogh created a well balanced atmosphere by using the light colored clouds to balance out the blues used in the mountains. The clouds also help to balance the arrangement of greens he used for the foreground and olive trees. This is called symmetrical balance. I believe van Gogh used this in his work not only create a well flowing piece, but also to get the viewers eyes to move across the painting. By doing this, he keeps the viewers eyes from staring at one section of the painting. Instead, the viewer receives an emotional grasp from the flow of line, color, and texture that the painting offers. Overall, I really enjoy this piece of art. Although it is not one of van Goghs most-known pieces, it is one of my favorites. I tend to go against the grain and choose things that I find interesting instead of going with the â€Å"social norm†. His use of color and texture is what keeps me looking at his work. I think the mood and emotion that he gave off by this painting could not be done with any other color. Obviously van Gogh had a message and an emotion that he wanted to portray in this piece, and I think he conveyed it perfectly. I think van Gogh was conveying a since of hope and happiness from this piece. His use of line and texture creates movement in the painting and a sense of joy. The bright cloud contrasts against the olive trees and seems to brighten the piece not only through color, but emotionally as well. The painting is a joy to look at and will remain that way for a long time to come. Works Cited Famous Vincent Van Gogh Paintings. Artist Quotes Art Quotes Famous Artists Fine Artists. Web. 17 Apr. 2010. . Frank, Patrick, and Duane Preble. Prebles Artforms: an Introduction to the Visual Arts. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson /Prentice Hall, 2009. Print. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism Art Reproductions, Impressionism and Post-Impressionism Paintings. Art Reproductions Oil Painting Reproductions. Web. 18 Apr. 2010. . MoMA | The Collection | Vincent Van Gogh. The Olive Trees. Saint Rà ©my, June-July 1889. MoMA | The Museum of Modern Art. Web. 14 Apr. 2010. . Diego Rivera Diego Rivera was born into a wealthy family in Mexico. From the age of ten, Rivera studied art at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City (Biography). He was sponsored to continue study in Europe by the governor of Veracruz (Biography). After his arrival in Europe in 1907, he began to study art with a number of well known artists. A few years later Picasso and Georges Braque began getting world-wide exposure with their new type of art, Cubism. From 1913-1918, he devoted himself almost entirely to the cubist school of art (Arttrader). In 1920, Rivera left France and spent a short time in Italy. While there, Rivera studied frescoes and the popular works from the Renaissance period (Biography). In 1921, Rivera returned to Mexico to start on what I personally believe to be some of his best works. He began to paint murals in auditoriums, schools, and other various government buildings. Most of his art carried political influence which he believed in. Rivera was a communist and his work shared that of his political beliefs and how he felt about the Mexican people. He began to develop his own native style based on large, simplified figures and bold colors. Although his paintings were beautiful, his attacks on the church and political beliefs made him a controversial figure. (Biography). Some of his best known works during this time are: En el Arsenal, Creation, and The Flower Carrier. Rivera painted frescoes in this style for many years up until his death in 1957 (Biography). I chose to do my paper on one of his pieces with a Cubist influence. It was completed in 1912 while he was in France. The artwork is called â€Å"Cubist Landscape†. It is an oil on canvas that measures 25  ¾Ã¢â‚¬  x 35  ½Ã¢â‚¬  (MoMA). I chose this piece of art because it reminds me of my grandmother. She was a quilter, and at first glance, this painting reminds me of a patchwork quilt. Cubism was a huge influence in Riveras earlier career, and this was one of his first works in France. The content of this piece is a landscape filled with trees of different colors and a colorful sky with a mountain in the background. To me, it looks like you are looking at four different paintings that have been sat on top of each other at different angles. The use of the cubism style in this painting is very evident due to not only the name, but the way the object of the picture and background are â€Å"chopped† up and distorted throughout the piece. Rivera used big chunks of dif ferent objects to make this piece so it is not as distorted as the works of Picasso. I believe he did this so the viewer would not lose emphasis on the emotion Rivera was trying to get the viewer to feel. Rivera balanced the painting by using the Cubist style to section the painting out in to different pieces. The eye is specifically drawn to the lighter-green tree in the front. This tree is standing straight while all the other trees are bent and leaning in different directions. By doing this, Rivera made the tree in the front the subject of the piece, and made your eyes be drawn directly to this object. Line also played a role in the emotion and emphasis on the tree. He emphasized the front tree even more by making it more detailed and by giving the trunk of it texture. It stands straight up compared to the other ones to symbolize strength and power. The background of the artwork is where the emotion in the painting is created. The background is colored in a patchwork of the color wheel. Greens, reds, oranges, blues, violets, and yellows are all woven into the background to create a happy mood that surrounds the trees. The other trees also fall into the back ground and are red and blue. I think the added color that surrounds the subject gives the piece a lighter feeling and makes the viewer want to smile. I also like the use of impressionism in the piece. Around the border of the painting, Rivera dashed color on the background to create a meadow-like scene to the piece. The use of different color reminds me of wild flowers swaying in the breeze. He created what the eye would actually see in a meadow by using wide, short brush strokes. The way he painted the background reminds me of the brushstrokes used in â€Å"Impression Sunrise† by Monet. His short brush strokes also give texture and movement to the piece. Short brush s trokes make the piece look soft in texture and give it movement as if there were a breezing blowing through the scene. Overall I really enjoyed this piece of art. Not only did it remind me of my grandmother, but it also gave me a new grasp on the Cubist style of art. I was not a fan of cubism until researching this piece because I did not â€Å"get it†. So many times when viewers see cubism we want to run away because we cannot understand what we are looking at. In this piece Rivera makes it very clear and there is no underlying meaning like some of the other Cubists work. It is direct and straight-forward and that is why I chose it. This piece has caused me to grasp new meaning and understanding of the Cubist style and I will definitely embrace what I have learned. Works Cited Art Trader. Web. 21 Apr. 2010. . Diego Rivera Biography. Biography.com. Web. 21 Apr. 2010. . MoMA | The Collection | Diego Rivera. Cubist Landscape. 1912. MoMA | The Museum of Modern Art. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. . Georgia OKeeffe Georgia OKeeffe was born November 15th, 1887 in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. She grew up most of her life in Wisconsin but moved away to go to the Chatham Protest and Episcopal Institute in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1900. After graduating in 1904, she studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago and at the Art Students League in New York (Georgia). She is well known for her artwork and has won many awards such as the Gold Medal of Painting, the Medal of Freedom, and was presented the National Medal of Arts in 1985 by President Ronald Reagan (Georgia). It is said that OKeeffe revolutionized modern art in both her time and to the present. She painted natural scenes which she vividly portrayed with a close-up view. She used art to convey that nature is as powerful as the widespread industrialization of the period of her time. Georgia OKeeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 1924 (Georgia). He was a famous photographer who put his wifes work in his gallery. In 1916, Georgias work was first exhibited and this is when her art began to be seen and appreciated. In 1949, OKeeffe moved to New Mexico where her art took on a new dimension. She painted bones and desert scenes which captured the calmness and bareness of the desert (Georgia). During her career as a painter, OKeeffe has mostly been remembered for her abstract style of art. She painted many things you would see in nature. She painted them as she saw them, not has how most would see them. She created her style of art by zooming in on the object and painting things that the naked eye would not be able to see. This was her representation of the flower or other object she was painting. Her style of art has been viewed all over the world and she is one of the most famous American artists to this day. I chose â€Å"Lake George, Coat and Red† to do my paper on because the piece jumped out at me. The painting is oil on canvas and it was created in 1919 (MoMA). This abstract piece is rich in texture and the mood of it warms your heart and lightens your mood. Georgia not only used line to create happiness in her piece, but she also used the bright reds in the background to accent the dark color of the painting. She used red and blue because they contrast one another, and it is a great way to catch the viewers eye. Not only did OKeeffe use red and blues in the painting, she also used greens, yellows, and orange. Im not sure if each color was meant to represent different types of emotions, but it gives the piece a center or â€Å"wholeness† since she used every color. Not only is the color balanced in this piece, but the way she used the value in each hue also creates a centralized feel. Since the subject of the piece is a dark blue, I think OKeeffe used the small white ball in the upper portion of the painting to create a small mass that contrasts the heavy blues she used for the subject. Her use of thick lines and texture also contributes to the balance of the piece and gives the subject a since of flow and gracefulness that draws your eyes from the lower left-hand corner of the piece on towards the upper right-hand corner. The paintings size is 27 3/8† x 23  ¼Ã¢â‚¬  (MoMA). This is an average size piece for her, and I think she used this size to get the viewer to see the painting up close and visually â€Å"feel† the texture and the movement of the piece. Not only did the size of the canvas play a role in how she wanted the viewer to feel, but the medium she used did as well. Georgia OKeeffe used a lot of oil paints to make her art because of the way she could create texture throughout each piece with this medium. She also used oil paints because she could blend each color easily to create the hue she wanted. Scale also played a huge part of OKeeffes work because most of her abstract art is a zoomed-in version of what the eye can see. By using this blown-up scale, OKeeffe can make the viewer feel the emotion of the object. Overall, I think that Georgia OKeeffe mastered abstract art and I will continue to be a fan. She has forever changed the way art will be viewed and will be an inspiration for many artists to come. I would not change anything about this piece because the size, color, texture, medium, and line all play a part in what OKeeffe wanted to portray in this piece. Works Cited Georgia OKeeffe Biography. Lakewood Public Library (Lakewood, Ohio). N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2010. . MoMA | The Collection | Georgia OKeeffe. Lake George, Coat and Red. 1919. MoMA | The Museum of Modern Art. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2010. . Paul Cà ©zanne Paul Cà ©zanne was a French painter born January 19, 1839. He developed artistic interests at an early age and was sent to Paris to study when he was twenty-three. He has often been called the father of modern art, who â€Å"strove to develop an ideal synthesis of naturalistic representation, personal expression, and abstract pictorial order† (Retro). While he was in Paris he studied the works of Monet, Delacroix, and Gustave Courbet (Retro). Cà ©zannes early paintings show little resemblance to his later and more important style. The subject matter is dark and depressing and includes fantasies, dreams, religious images, and a general theme concerned with death (Notable). Most of the work from this era of his life was harshly criticized and was never accepted in any art exhibitions. In the 1870s, Cà ©zanne began to change his style. He started using brighter colors and the religious subjects he once used in his paintings began to disappear (Notable). Cà ©zannes paintings from the 1870s clearly show the influence of Impressionism. He used short brushstrokes characterized by Monet and other early Impressionist to portray what the â€Å"eyes see rather than what the mind knows† (Frank). Some of his most known pieces from this time are â€Å"House of the Hanged Man† and â€Å"Portrait of Victor Choquet† (Notable). In the late 1870s Cà ©zanne moved back to his home in southern France and isolated himself from the art world. He began to create his own style of Impressionism, but he did not exhibit his art for almost twenty years (Notable). Cà ©zannes began to come out of his solitude during the 1890s. In 1895, a large number of Cà ©zannes paintings were shown, and public interest in his work slowly began to develop. By 1904 he was given an entire room at the Salon dAutomne (Notable). Unfortunately he died October 22, 1906 due to natural causes (Notable). Though he died right when he was getting large recognition for his work, Cà ©zanne will be remembered as a front-runner of modern art (Notable). The piece of Cà ©zannes work I chose was â€Å"Still Life with Fruit Dish†. This painting is an oil on canvas that measures 18 1/4 x 21 1/2 (MoMA). According to MoMA, [Still life was an important genre to Cà ©zanne, who made approximately two hundred such paintings over the course of four decades. In â€Å"Still Life with Fruit Dish† he created a shallow, compressed space that flattens the sculptural volumes of dish, glass, and fruit. This painting was a prized possession of the artist Paul Gauguin, who described the picture as an exceptional pearl, the apple of my eye. It was only when he needed money for medical care that Gauguin unhappily parted with it.] I completely agree with Gauguin. This painting is a fantastic example of how Cà ©zanne created his own style of Impressionism. If the viewer were to put Monets work next to it, you could see the resemblance of Impressionism, but he or she could also see both artists personal style difference. Monet was the pioneer of Impressionism, but personally, I prefer what Cà ©zanne did with this piece much more than â€Å"Impression: Sunrise† or â€Å"Water Lily Pond† by Monet. In â€Å"Still Life with Fruit Dish†, Cà ©zanne created most of the lines in the painting with thick, swift brushstrokes in the Impressionist style. Most of the lines in the painting are jagged and not very detailed. The lighting in the piece looks like it is coming from the right and is shining down on the table and the fruit bowl. By using light this way, Cà ©zanne put emphasis on the fruit bowl which is the subject of the piece. Cà ©zanne also positioned the knife to point directly toward the fruit bowl. This guides the viewers eyes from the lower-right-hand corner of the painting directly to the subject. Since this piece is in the Impressionist style, Cà ©zanne painted what the eyes actually see. Impressionists painted what they saw, so there is no underlying meaning to this piece like works of the Renaissance had. The colors Cà ©zanne used give emphasis on the subject. The background is a dark-colored wall. The tablecloth and fruit bowl are both bright white. Though blue is sometimes used to evoke sadness in a viewer, I do not believe Cà ©zanne was trying to create sadness in this piece. The colors he used for the fruits are realistic colors and their greens, yellows, and reds warm the painting dramatically. Cà ©zanne used thick texture in this painting, but it does not create movement or rhythm in the piece like the works of van Goghs did. I think here he used subtle texture just so the painting would not look bland and flat. The texture he used gives character to the fruit as well as the blue background. Overall, I really like this painting and wish I could have a copy in my house. So far it is my favorite painting I have written about. Cà ©zannes realistic proportion, contrast, and use of space also drew my eye to this piece. I like being able to view art and â€Å"know† what the artist wanted you to see and feel. When looking at this painting, I immediately â€Å"got it†. After reading about Cà ©zanne, I have definitely acquired more knowledge about the Impressionist style and gained a new love for his type of art. Works Cited Frank, Patrick, and Duane Preble. Prebles Artforms: an Introduction to the Visual Arts. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson /Prentice Hall, 2009. Print. MoMA | The Collection | Paul Cà ©zanne. Still Life with Fruit Dish. 1879-80. MoMA | The Museum of Modern Art. Web. 25 Apr. 2010. . Paul Cà ©zanne Biography. Oil Painting Reproductions : Museum Quality Art. Web. 25 Apr. 2010. . Paul Cà ©zanne Biography Life, Story, Death, School, Information, Born, House, Time, Year. Encyclopedia of World Biography. Web. 25 Apr. 2010. . Pablo Picasso Pablo Picasso was a famous Spanish painter and sculptor who lived from 1881-1973. He is best known for cofounding Cubism with Georges Braque. His father, Ruiz, was an artist and influenced Picassos early works. When Picasso was seven, his father began to give him formal training in drawing and painting (Answers). Ruiz was a traditional artist and instructor who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of famous artwork. Picasso became so preoccupied with art that he put his education second. After only six years of painting, Picassos father realized that his son was more talented than him (Answers). At the age of thirteen, Picasso took an entrance exam to the Barcelona School of Fine Arts. After creating his piece in only a week, he was accepted and began taking classes (Answers). Three years later his father sent him to Madrids Royal Academy of San Fernando which was one of the most recognized art schools in Spain (Answers). Shortly after enrolling at the Royal Academy, Picasso dropped out to move to Paris in the early 1900s. His first masterpiece was â€Å"Les Demoiselles dAvignon† which he created in 1907. It was thought of as being controversial because of its reference to the female body and masked faces he used (Answers). From 1909-1912, Picasso continued to work closely with Georges Braque to create what would be known as â€Å"Cubism† (Answers). Though Cubism is a huge part of Picassos work, the painting I chose has no cubist influence. My artwork is â€Å"Night Fishing at Antibes†. It is a 69† x 114† oil on canvas that Picasso completed in 1939 (MoMA). I chose this piece because I wanted to learn more about abstract art, and because I enjoy fishing. The subject of this painting was based on â€Å"Picassos observation of night scenes off the shore of Antibes in the South of France. Men went out and fished by the light of acetylene lamps; the lights attracted the fish to the surface, where they could be netted or speared† (Lenin). Some say that the painting has deeper meaning that relates to the outbreak of World War II, but after researching the topic heavily, I found that the idea is not for certain. The content in the painting is two fishermen in a boat. One has fishing line attached to his toe, and the other man is about to stab a fish with a spear. Two women are standing on a bridge to the right . One woman is holding a bicycle and eating an ice cream cone. Picasso used symbolism in his paintings, and there must be symbolism in this piece, but after my research, I could not find any concrete answers for why he painted â€Å"Night Fishing at Antibes† this way. Most art critics believe that Picasso painted this piece as a war protest much like â€Å"Guernica†, but he never announced that this was the paintings meaning (Answers). The size of the painting also has to do something with the meaning. This painting is almost twelve feet wide and seven feet tall. If the meaning of the piece is to protest WWII, Picasso created this painting to be the size of a billboard. This would help drive the underlying meaning of the painting and convey what Picasso wanted to say about the war with a bold message. Picasso created a well-lit piece by making the moonlight shine directly down on the water. This contrasts the fish on the right and makes the eyes look directly at it first. The piece is well balanced due to its large, dark background and small space of lightness. The viewers eyes go directly toward the fish on the right not only because of the lighting, but also due to the way Picasso used line. The spear has four straight, thick arrows pointing directly at the fish. This spear also looks like a trident. This could have some time of underlying meaning as well. The spear looks strong and bold. After guiding your eyes up the shaft of the spear, your eyes drift left across the arm of the fisherman. He is scaled much larger than the other fisherman in the boat and his eyes seem to be looking directly at the viewer. No other subjects in the painting are looking towards the viewer except for this fisherman. The spear and the fishermans arm are by far the strongest lines in the piece. They are at 90 degree angles, unlike any of the other lines in the painting. Though the piece is constructed with purely organic shapes, the painting does not convey a since of movement or rhythm. To me the piece seems like a snapshot in time catching everyone off guard. The colors Picasso used in the painting give the piece emphasis on what time of day it is. The viewer can tell the painting is a night scene because of the title, but I believe Picasso painted a night scene for an underlying meaning. Almost every color in the painting is dark except for the water on which the moon shines down on. The dark hues give the piece a cold and sad feeling. Just by the color alone, I can tell that I would not want to be in this scene. I really liked this work when I first saw it, but after doing research I have changed my view of it. Now knowing what was going on in the world at the time, I feel that this painting has a much deeper meaning than what I as young college student can grasp. I will always be a fan of Picassos work, but to be honest, I just do not understand a lot of what he wants the viewer to catch on to. I like the painting, but I am actually disappointed after writing this paper. Personally, I would have rather picked a piece that I could have understood than try to chase down the meaning of this painting. I spent more time doing research on the underlying meaning than I spent enjoying the painting. I felt like I was chasing my tail while doing the report on this piece. Nonetheless, I am still a fan of Picassos and maybe one day the message of this piece (if any) will hit me. Works Cited MoMA | The Collection | Pablo Picasso. Night Fishing at Antibes. Antibes, August 1939. MoMA | The Museum of Modern Art. Web. 22 Apr. 2010. . Pablo Picasso Night Fishing at Antibes (1939). Lenin Imports UK Latest CDs, Cassettes, Vinyl , Movie, Art Memorabilia In Stock Art, Rock, Movie Loads More. Web. 21 Apr. 2010. . Pablo Picasso Night Fishing at Antibes (1939). Lenin Imports UK Latest CDs, Cassettes, Vinyl , Movie, Art Memorabilia In Stock Art, Rock, Movie Loads More. Web. 28 Apr. 2010. . Pablo Picasso: Biography from Answers.com. Answers.com: Wiki QA Combined with Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Encyclopedias. Web. 23 Apr. 2010. .

Epic of Beowulf Essay - Hero of Epic Proportions :: Epic of Beowulf Essay

Beowulf - Hero of Epic Proportions Beowulf is â€Å"the strongest of the Geats -- greater / and stronger than anyone anywhere in this world† (ll.110-111). Even though he is famous for his massive strength, Beowulf has other attributes that are noticeable other than his strength. These attributes, arrogance, bravery, and a strong love for his people are what make Beowulf become such a powerful, epic hero. Beowulf is arrogant. He constantly brags about his supreme strength. The â€Å"strongest man alive† lets people know that he is the most powerful person around by saying, â€Å"no strength is a match for mine† (l.267). Beowulf does not think that he could ever be destroyed by anything. He obviously never questiones how his fighting ability would be when he was around seventy. Since Beowulf is convinced that God is watching over him, his ego makes him act as if he is invincible, because of the idea that he has a guardian angel. But, as Beowulf gets older, wiser, and fights in more battles he should realize that there was a possibility that he can die. Beowulf also boasts about his many battles, and is proud of himself for winning all of them. One of these triumphs is the battle in the water when he meets up with nine sea monsters which he killeds, and fights with a monster that is digging its jaws into Beowulf’s flesh. Beowulf proclaims that â€Å" I fought that beast’s last battle, / left it floating in the sea† (ll.290-291). This epic tale reads that while Beowulf is in battle with Grendel’s mother, all he cares was about the fame he would get for defeating her. Unferth thinks that Beowulf was arrogant, by saying, â€Å" You’re Beowulf, are you the same / Boastful fool who fought a swimming / Match with Brecca† (ll.239-241). Yes, Beowulf is a boastful fool that loves the attention that his strength gives him. A strong man and an arrogant one, Beowulf is also brave. Even after all of the horror stories that he hears about Grendel, he still fights the cursed beast without any hesitation. When he battles with Grendel, he does it without the things that everyone else would use--weapons. This shows that Beowulf is not scared of anything in the world. He also must be brave to fight a sea monster after swimming in the ocean for days. He went straight into battle exhausted, from the strenuous journey across the ocean.

An Analysis of HBOs Sex and the City :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

HBO's Sex and the City has become a cultural icon in its 6 seasons of running. Based on Candace Bushnell's racy book Sex and the City, the show exhibits an unprecedented example of the sexual prowess of women over the age of 35. The result is an immense viewing audience and an evolving view on the "old maid" stigma that a woman's chances of finding love are significantly reduced after thirty-five. In this paper, we will closely analyze the characters and themes of Sex and the City to explain the significance of what the show represents in American culture. Sex and the City is a show centered around four beautiful, successful women in their mid-to-late thirties. Although the show focuses on the "love lives" of the four women, the title has been dubbed "Sex and the City," and not "Love and the City." The question is, why? Well, it could be simply that sex does sell. Perhaps Candace Bushnell christened her book Sex and the City because it would attract more readers. However, while this may be a small, superficial factor in the reasoning behind the title, the content of the show suggests a deeper purpose behind the focus on sex. For the most part, the relationship between love and sex is dichotomized throughout the show. Although the characters end up married or in a monogamous relationship at the end of the series, the majority of the show is concentrated on the women's brief sexual encounters and the glorification of their trysts. Only once in awhile do the topics of love and sex come up simultaneously in the characters' post-sex brunch conversations. The show presents beautiful, successful women having sex and talking about sex like men. Meaning, their promiscuity is excused and their sexual vulgarity is quite often the comic relief in the show. This deflates somewhat the double standard that men can sleep around, but if women do, they are "dirty." Although each character has a different view on sex, they all share the mindset that casual sex is acceptable. The show never breaches this mindset, creating a world where promiscuity and sexually aggressive women are common, and sexy. Samantha Jones, played by Kim Cattrall, is a sexually dominant character who is afraid of commitment. The episode entitled "The Good Fight" ("The Good Fight" 1) features Samantha explaining to her friends that her current lover is just a "sex thing" and that her emotions are intact.

How the microhistories work against and within the apparatus of society

Michel de Certeau, focuses on how practical means remain unconsumed by consumer society; Luce Giard delves into the tactics of resistance and private practices that turn living into a subversive art. Both two theorize the idea of â€Å"making do†, emphasizing on how the microhistories work against and within the apparatus of society. Influenced by Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, Michel de Certeau tends to integrate the theories of conscious and unconscious with his notion of everyday practice, focusing on the interrelation, interaction, interreiteration between the force of strategy and the power of tactic. Certeau’s concept strongly echoes to Foucault’s notion of disciplinary system in modern society, further nourishing it with plebeian energy. In chapter III â€Å"’Making Do’: Uses and Tactics†, he theorizes the productive practice and consumptive activity inherent in repetitive and unconscious everyday life. A strategy, which is linked to institutions and structures of power( producer), according to Certeau, is called â€Å"the calculation( or manipulation) of power relationships that becomes possible as soon as a subject with will and power†¦can be isolated†(35-36), whereas â€Å"a tactic is a calculated action determined by the absence of a proper locus†(36-37), and is used by individuals( consumers) to resist to the dominant order in environment defined by strategies. In chapter VII, â€Å"Walking in the City†, Certeau contends that the city, described as a unified whole by maps is generated by the strategies of governments, corporations, and other institutions. Certeau argues that, everyday life, which works by a process of poaching on the territory of others, though, using the principles, rules, constructions, products established in th... ...ody technique, they ways in which from society to society men know how to use their bodies†(203). Superimposed invention, tradition, and education give the gesture â€Å"a form of efficacy that suits the physical makeup and practical intelligence†(203). Gestures lasts only as long as its utility function, when they die out, â€Å"words sometimes still subsist, in the memory of the bygone past†(208). By examining the new market habits, Giard points out that the gestures and practice of the buying woman have had to be transformed into a new killed ability in order to negotiate with those habits, which construct â€Å"a collective scientific knowledge†(209). Giard concludes that in the age of overmodernization, â€Å"room remains for microinventions†, for people working on their physical activities to make choice among the tools and commodities produced within the social apparatus.

Thermodynamic Analysis and Performance Characteristics

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND DESIGN THE THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTRISTICS OF A TURBOFAN JET ENGINE By J. E, Ibok 2011 Supervisor: Dr Lionel Ganippa ABSTRACT This work focuses on the performance analysis of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. The main objective was to investigate the effects of using hydrogen, kerosene and natural gas fuel on the performance characteristics such as net thrust, specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency of the turbofan.Another aim of this work was to introduce the concept of exergy and thermoeconomics analysis for twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine and show the components that contributes the most to the inefficiency of the engine. A generic simulation was carried out using Gas Turb 11 software to obtain reasonable analysis results that were verified with a real-time JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The parametric analysis was done for constant value of mass flow rate of fuel and constant turb ine inlet temperature for all three fuels.The result were rightfully obtained for these analysis cases and discussed accordingly. Brunel University Mechanical Engineering Academic Session: 2010/2011 Name of Student: Johnson Essien Ibok Supervisor:Dr Lionel Ganippa Title: The Performance Characteristics and Thermodynamics Exergy and Thermoeconomics analysis of a Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Operating at 30,000ft at M0 0. using Kerosene, natural Gas and Hydrogen Fuel. Abstract: This work focuses on the performance analysis of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. A generic simulation was carried out using Gas Turb 11 software to obtain reasonable analysis results that were verified with a real-time JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The parametric analysis was done for constant value of mass flow rate of fuel and constant turbine inlet temperature for all three fuels.The result were rightfully obtained for these analysis cases and discussed accordingly. Objectives: The main aim of this work is to conduct the parametric cycle simulation of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine and investigate the performance characteristics of it. Another aim of this work is to show the effects of using hydrogen, Kerosene and natural gas fuel on the overall performance of the twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine.Also, the purpose of this work is to introduce the use of the second law of thermodynamics analysis known as exergy and thermoeconomics in analysis the twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine Background/Applications: This work is applicable in so many ways when it comes to the overall performance optimization and feasibility analysis of a jet engine. This work relates to the aerospace and aviation industries since the turbofan engine is amongst the vast number of jet engine used in propulsion of aircrafts.There is increasing pressure in the aviation industry to reduce pollution and depletion of energy resources while at the same time maintaining reasonable investment cost and high overall performance. Hence, this research was conducted in hopes of coming up with a new solution to this problem. Conclusions: The main conclusion drawn from the performance analysis is that hydrogen fuel produced the highest thrust level and the lowest specific fuel consumption between the three fuels for a constant mass flow rate of fuel.Kerosene fuel generated thrust level can be increased if it is mixed with a small amount of hydrogen. The Exit jet velocity ratio remained constant despite the increasing bypass ratio for all three fuels at constant mass flow rate of fuel. Using the exergetic analysis showed that the combustion chamber and the mixer contributed the most to the inefficiency of the turbofan engine. The amount of exergy transferred into the turbofan engine by hydrogen was depleted in the smallest ratio compared to natural gas and kerosene for constant mass flow rate of fuel.The thermoeconomics analysis showed that it is preferable to use local based co st evaluation to quantity specific thermoeconomics cost of thrust than the global method since the value was lower. Results: The results obtained from the simulation using Gas Turb 11 produced an error range of 0. 25% – 8. 5% when verified with the actual test data of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The results obtained for the analysis defined a reference design point at which the parametric analysis was conducted on. The analysis was done in three cases as shown clearly in the test matrix in table 1 below.Analysis| Parameters being varied| Parameters Kept Constant| Performance Characteristics| case 1| * Bypass ratio * Turbine Inlet temperature| * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure Ratio * Fan Pressure Ratio| * Velocity ratio * Fuel-Air-ratio * Turbine inlet temperature * Net thrust * Specific Fuel Consumption * Thermal efficiency * Propulsive efficiency| case 2| * Bypass Ratio * Three different fuelsmH2mCH4mC12H23| * Mass flow rate of fuel * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure R atio * Fan Pressure Ratio| | Case 3| * Bypass Ratio * Three different fuelsmH2mCH4mC12H23| * Turbine inlet temperature * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure Ratio * Fan Pressure Ratio| | Table 1 The Test matrix of the Parametric Analysis. The exergy analysis was done for the parametric analysis of case 2 and case 3 where the exergy destruction rates, exergetic efficiency, exergy improvement potential rate and fuel depletion ratio were calculated. The distribution of these results throughout each component of the turbofan engine was represented with bar charts and Grassmann diagram. The thermoeconomics analysis was conducted for analysis case 2 using kerosene fuel.The specific thermoeconomics cost of thrust was calculated using global and local based cost evaluation methods. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to thank my parents for their financial support and encouragement because without them I would not be here and be able to do this work. I am deeply thankful to my supervi sor, Dr Lionel Ganippa for believing in me and giving me the opportunity to work with him in this field of study. I am also thankful to him for giving the necessary guidance and advice and his enthusiasm and innovative ideas inspired me. Finally, I would like to thank Mr Joachim Kurzke for providing me with the necessary software needed for my dissertation. Table of ContentsAcknowledgements i Contents ii List of Notations and Subscripts iv List of Tables vi List of Figures vi Chapter 1: Introduction1 1. 1. Aims and Objectives2 1. 2. Computational Modeling3 Chapter 2: Jet Engines4 2. 1. Performance characteristics4 2. 1. 1. Thrust4 2. 1. 2. Thermal Efficiency5 2. 1. 3. Propulsive efficiency5 2. 1. 4. Overall efficiency6 2. 1. 5. Specific Fuel Consumption6 2. 2. Fuel and Propellants For Jet Engines7 Chapter 3: Turbofan Jet Engines †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦8 3. 1. Introduction 8 3. 2. Classification of Turbofan Engines9 3. 3. Major Components of a Turbofan Engine10 3. 3. 1. Diffuser10 3. 3. 2. Fan and Compressor11 3. 3. 3. Combustion Chamber12 3. 3. 4. Turbine13 3. 3. 5. Exhaust Nozzle14 3. 4.Thermodynamic Process and Cycle of a Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine15 Chapter 4: Mathematical and Gas turb 11 Modeling of the turbofan Engine18 4. 1. Station Numbering and Assumptions18 4. 2. Design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine18 4. 3. Off-design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine21 4. 3. 1. Module/Component Matching 22 4. 3. 2. Off-Design Point Component Modeling22 Chapter 5: Methodology, Results and Discussions26 5. 1. General Relationship equations of the Major Parameters27 5. 2. Results and Discussions of Parametric cycle Analysis of Case 129 5. 3. Results and Discussions of Parametric Cycle Analysis of Case 235 5. 4.Results and Discussions of Parametric Cycle Analysis of Case 343 Chap ter 6: Exergy and Thermoeconomics Analysis of the Turbofan Engine49 6. 1. Exergy Analysis49 6. 1. 1. Exergy Analysis Modeling 50 6. 1. 2. Exergy and Energy Balance Equations of the Components58 6. 1. 3. General Relationships in Exergetic Analysis of the Turbofan Engine60 6. 1. 4. Results and Discussions61 6. 1. 5. Grassmann Diagram72 6. 2. Thermoeconomics Analysis74 6. 2. 1. Thermoeconomics Analysis Modelling74 6. 2. 2. Global Based Cost Evaluation76 6. 2. 3. Local Based Cost Evaluation77 6. 2. 4. Results and Discussion of the Thermoeconomics Analysis78 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Future Work80 Reference Appendix A Exergy Analysis Results Appendix B Thermoeconomics Analysis resultsList of Notations and Units ?| Isentropic efficiency| ?| Total Pressure ratio| m| Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)| f| Fuel/Air Ratio| M| Mach Number| Pt| Total pressure (kPa)| Tt| Total Temperature (K)| NCV| Net Calorific Value (MJ/kg)| Ht| Total Enthalpy (kJ/kg)| V| Velocity (m/s)| ?| Bypass Ratio| T| Static Temperat ure (K)| P| Static Pressure (kPa)| N| Actual Spool Speed (RPM)| Nc| Corrected Spool Speed (RPM)| mc| Corrected Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)| R| Universal Gas Constant (kJ/kmolK)| ?0| Standard Chemical Exergy (kJ/kmol)| Ex| Exergy Rate (MW)| xi| Mole Fraction| cp| Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (kJ/kgK)| ?| Ratio of Chemical Exergy to NCV| ?| Exergetic Efficiency| | Fuel Depletion Ratio| W| Power Rate of Work done (MW)| List of Subscripts| | LPT| Low Pressure Turbine| HPT| High Pressure Turbine| CC| Combustion Chamber| HPC| High Pressure Compressor| LPC| Low Pressure Compressor| d| Diffuser| noz| Nozzle| mix| Mixer| dest| Destruction Rate| 0, ambFAR| Ambient conditionFuel-Air-Ratio| CH| Chemical| PH| Physical| KN| Kinetic| PN| Potential| IP| Exergy Improvement Potential Rate (MW)| CRF| Cost Recovery Factor| c| Specific Thermoeconomic Cost (MJ/kg)| STD| Standard Temperature and Pressure| TIT| Turbine Inlet Temperature| TSFC| Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kNs)| SFC| Specific Fuel Co nsumption| p| Propulsive| TH| Thermal|O| Overall| T| Thrust| equip| Equipment| PEC| Capital Cost of Equipment| List of Tables Table 1 input parameters for Design Point Cycle Simulation on Gas Turb 1119 Table 2 Comparison table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Data using gas Turb 1121 Table 3 Comparison Table for Actual Test Data and Simulated Off-Design Point data Using gas Turb 11. 25 Table 4 Equivalence Ratio of the three Fuels Combustion Processes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 62 Table 5 Assumed Capital costs of Each Component of the Turbofan Engine. 75 Table 6 Flow of Specific Thermoeconomics Cost in all the Components 79 List of Figures Figure 1 Classification of Turbofan Engine9Figure 2 Layout of Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan16 Figure 3 T-S Diagram for the Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan17 Figure 4 Design Point Cycle Simulation Algorithm Using Gas Turb 1120 Figure 5 Example of a Compressor Performance Map/Cu rve24 Figure 6 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Fuel-Air-Ratio30 Figure 7 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Exit Velocity Ratio30 Figure 8 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on LPT Exit Pressure Ratio31 Figure 9 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Net Thrust32 Figure 10 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Specific Fuel Consumption33 Figure 11 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Propulsive Efficiency34 Figure 12 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio t Constant Values of TIT on Thermal Efficiency35 Figure 13 T-S diagram of using Hydrogen Fuel when the bypass Ratio is increased36 Figure 14 Variation of Fuel-Air-Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels37 Figure 15 Variation of TIT with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels37 Figure 16 Variation of Exit Velocity Ratio with Byp ass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels38 Figure 17 Variation of LPT Exit Pressure Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels39 Figure 18 Variation of Net Thrust with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels40 Figure 19 Variation of Specific Fuel Consumption with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels41 Figure 20 Variation of Thermal Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels42 Figure 21 Variation of Propulsive Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels43 Figure 22 Variation of Fuel-Air-Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels44 Figure 23 Variation of Exit Velocity Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels44 Figure 24 Variation of LPT Exit Pressure Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels45 Figure 25 Variation of Net Thrust with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels46 Figure 26 Variation of Specific Fuel Consumption with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels46 Figure 27 Variation of Propulsive Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels47 Figure 28 Variation of Thermal Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels48 Figure 29 Variation of Exergy Destruction Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 262 Figure 30 Variation of Exergy Destruction Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 364 Figure 31 Variation of Exergetic Efficiencies Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 266 Figure 32 Variation of Exergetic Efficiencies Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 367 Figure 33 Distribution of Exergy Improvement potential Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 268 Figure 34 Distribution of Exergy Improvement potential Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 369 Figure 35 variation of Fuel Depletion ratio using the Three Fuels for Analysis Case 270 Figure 36 variation of Fuel Depletion ratio using the Three Fuels for Analysis Case 371 Figure 37 Grassmann Diagram for the Exergetic analysis of Case 2 using kerosene Fuel for the Turbofan engine. 72 Chapter 1 Introduction Jet engines are complex thermodynamic systems that use a series of non-linear equation to define their thermodynamic processes and they operate under the principle of Brayton cycle.Brayton cycle is a cycle that comprises of the compressor, combustor and turbine working as a unit. Additionally, the major parameters that dictate the operational conditions of the engine at any point during the process are the relative altitude and Mach number. Mach number is the ratio of the velocity of the jet engine to the speed of sound. Basically, the main purpose of this type of thermodynamic system in aerospace industry is to accelerate a jet of air and as a result, generate enough thrust needed for flight. In addition, the design of jet engines is dependent of what purpose it will be used for in order to derive its maximum performance.For instance, in military application, jet engines are required to generate maximum thrust in minimum response time which consumes a lot of fuel whereas commercial jet engines are required to less noise generative, less fuel consuming and at the same time have high overall efficiency (El-sayed, 2008). There are certain factors that jet engine manufacturers take into consideration when designing jet engines which are the operating cost, engine noise, environmental emissions, fuel burn and overall efficiency. Accordingly, this has caused a global market competition for engine manufacturers like Rolls Royce, Pratt and Whitney, General Electric and CFM on who can produce the most efficient jet engines.In fact, Pratt and Whitney Company is working on a geared turbofan jet engine that they believe will reduce fuel burn, produce lesse r noise and emit less toxics while General Electric is coming up with simpler â€Å"ecore† jet engines that will be more fuel efficient than the current jet engines with as much as almost two fifths of current jet engines (Cassidy, 2008). Taking all that has been said into consideration, it can easily be asserted that by reducing the fuel consumption of the jet engine, the total temperature at the turbine blades will reduce thereby increasing the operating life and overall efficiency of the engine. Also, the total cost of the engine can be cut down. Indeed, Dr Pallan cited in (Ward, 2007) stated that reducing the fuel consumption by as little as 1% is highly longed after by engine manufacturers and this can result in very significant increase in the overall performance.In a general point of view, it can be said that the maximum point of achievement for jet engine manufacturers would be to design an engine that consumes the minimum amount of work in the compressor unit while g enerating the maximum amount of work in the turbine unit at minimum fuel supply. The main purpose of this work is to analyse the thermodynamic processes and performance of a jet engine using a simulation tool, exergy and thermoeconomics concept. 1. 1. Aims and Objectives The main objective of this work is to carry out the thermodynamic analysis and show the performance characteristics of a turbofan jet engine. In this work, the vivid explanation of the thermodynamics processes and cycle of each component of the turbofan engine starting from the diffuser to the nozzle will be covered. Also, the first and second law of thermodynamics with other laws will be applied extensively throughout this work.However, in the aspect of performance characteristics of the turbofan engine, a generic simulation will be carried out on a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. To relate this work to real life application, a JT8D-15A turbofan engine manufactured by Pratt and Whitney Company will be used a s the twin spool mixed flow turbofan for the simulation using the original design data. Indeed, the simulation tool that will be used is GasTurb 11 which was designed by Joachim Kurke and for more details on how it works can be found in (Kurke, 2007). This work will use the reference design point of the twin spool mixed flow turbofan at sea level with maximum take-off thrust to obtain the operating point of 30,000ft at M0 0. using the off-design performance simulation which will serve as the operating design point for the analysis in this work since the engine will spend most of its time in the cruise phase between 30000ft to 38000ft. The purpose of carrying this generic simulation of the turbofan engine is to investigate the effects of varying bypass ratio and turbine inlet temperature (thermal limit parameter) on the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine. In other words, the parametric cycle studies of the turbofan engine. This investigation will be done for three dif ferent cases which case 1 will be studying the effects of varying bypass ratio and turbine inlet temperature on the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when some of the design choices are kept constant.The second case of study will be the comparison of the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when three different fuels (kerosene, natural gas and Hydrogen) are used at the same mass flow rate using the same design point in case 1. Finally, the third case of study will be the comparison of the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when the three fuels are undergoing the same combustion process that is constant turbine inlet temperature for the design point in case 1. This aspect of this analysis is very important owing to the growing problem of greenhouse effect and depletion of energy resources. In fact, statistics by the intergovernmental panel shows that aerospace industry is amongst one of the fast growing sources of greenhouse effect and t hat the emission of carbon dioxide will increase to five times what it is presently which is 3% (Symonds, 2005).Based on this, using alternative fuels like hydrogen and natural gas can tend to reduce pollution and consumption of energy resources risk and this work aims to show how that can be achieved while the overall efficiency of the engine is still high. Another approach of analysis in this work will be the use of the second law of thermodynamics analysis also known as exergy and thermoeconomics. This aspect of analysis of the turbofan engine will be done for the parametric analysis of case 2 and case 3 in efforts to also compare the three fuels that are being considered and show which fuel will cause the turbofan engine components to be most inefficient or have the most irreversibility.This analysis will be done by calculating the exergy relationships such as exergy transfer rates, exergy destruction rates, exergetic efficiencies, exergy improvement potential rates, and fuel de pletion ratios. Furthermore, the exergy analysis will be represented in a Grassmann diagram for parametric analysis case 2 of study. However, as for the thermoeconomics analysis of the turbofan engine, only parametric analysis case 3 studies will be done for only kerosene fuel and this work will aim to show how to use concept of local and global evaluation of thermoeconomic cost. 1. 2. Computational Modelling It will be very expensive and time wasting to design and develop new aircraft engine whenever an optimization or analysis wants to be done.In fact, Caoa Y, Jin, Meng and Fletcher (2005) stated that new ways should be developed to reduce aircraft engine design, maintenance and manufacturing cost in order to have effective worldwide market competition. Surprisingly, computer modelling is one approach of reducing manufacturing cost and time wasting. Computational modelling can simply be defined as the use of computer codes to replicate a typical system using some of its original d ata in order to analyse the system at varying conditions. The other side of the medallion shows simulation. There are many types of simulation tools normally used in simulating gas turbines such as Matlab/simulink, Modelica, Gas Turb 11, NPSS and many more. However, the simulation tool that will be adopted for the purpose of this dissertation is Gas Turb 11 designed by Joachim Kurzke.Gas Turb 11 is a language oriented program with a command prompt that calculates the output data without using block diagrams or graphical interface. It is user friendly in a sense that it is easy to find the tools library and to substitute data in for simulation. The Gas Turb 11 is specifically designed for simulation of all kinds of gas turbines starting from power generators to jet engines. Gas Turb 11 usually carries out two types of analysis which are the on design cycle point simulation and off-design cycle point simulation. Engine design point cycle simulation involves the study of comparing gas turbines of different geometry. This cycle design point must be defined before any other simulation can be done.On the other hand, off-design performance cycle point simulation involves the study of the behaviour of a gas turbine with known geometry. This cycle outlines the performance characteristics of each component such as performance maps, Overall efficiency. The type of simulation that will be done in this dissertation will involve the off-design and design point cycle. Chapter 2 Jet Engines 2. 1. Performance Parameter of Jet Engines 2. 2. 1. Thrust Thrust is the way of quantifying the ability of a jet engine to effectively utilise the energy added to it in order to propel or push itself forward in the opposite direction of the exiting jet in the exhaust nozzle.In other words, it is the reactive force to the force imparted by the exiting jet in the nozzle in accordance to Isaac Newton’s third law of motion. It is the most important parameter that has to be obtained for any jet engine and it depends heavily on the ingested mass of air, exiting velocity and pressure, the area of the nozzle, the flight velocity and ambient conditions. In fact, the mathematical expression for thrust which incorporates these factors is shown below as. Thrust=meVe-m0V0+Pe-P0Ae Where, e=the exit conditions at the exhaust nozzle, 0=ambient conditions at the inlet me=m0+mfuel Momentum Thrust=meVe; This is the thrust obtained from the reaction of the hot exhaust gases high velocity.Momentum Drag= m0V0 ; This the friction or drag force caused by the high velocity ingestion of air mass at the inlet. Pressure Thrust=Pe-P0Ae; This force is generated as a result of the higher exit static pressure compared to the ambient pressure which pushes back at the engine. Gross Thrust=meVe+Pe-P0Ae; It is the maximum obtainable positive thrust a jet engine can have when the drag forces are ignored. Special Cases of Thrust Take-off Thrust It is the thrust a jet engine can generate with its o wn power at static or low power setting which means the momentum drag component of thrust is ignored and the power of the engine at this point is equivalent to zero.This can be used to explain why the thrust of an engine at take-off condition is usually higher than at cruise condition since there is no momentum drag and effects of varying ambient condition. This only applies to turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop jet engines but when it comes to ramjet and scramjet, the air flow has to be accelerated by a booster system before it can start producing a positive take-off thrust. Pressure Thrust Component This is the thrust generated as a result of the static pressures of the exiting jet and ambient environment. In ideal cases where the nozzle has perfectly expanded the jet exit pressure to that of the ambient condition, the pressure thrust component will disappear which this case is not possible in reality.However, if the nozzle is choked which indicates that the ambient pressure is low er than the exit pressure of the jet, the pressure thrust component will have a positive effect on the net thrust. Also, if the nozzle tends to over expand the jet because of low energy addition to the jet and the exit pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, the pressure thrust component will have a negative effect on net thrust. 2. 2. 2. Thermal efficiency It is simply the measure at which energy in the engine system is converted. In other words, it is the measure at which total energy supplied to the engine system as heat transfer is converted to kinetic energy.In another way, it can easily be said to be the ratio of the power generated in the engine airflow to the rate at which energy is supplied in the fuel. ?TH=Power Generated in the Engine AirflowRate of Energy Supplied in the Fuel =12? meVe2-12? m0V02mfuel? NCV 2. 2. 3. Propulsive efficiency It is a measure at which kinetic energy possessed by air as it passes through the engine is converted into power of the propulsion of the engine. In mathematical terms, it is simply known as the ratio of thrust power to the power generated in the engine airflow. ?p=Thrust PowerPower Generated in the Engine Airflow = T? V012? meVe2-12? m0V02 2. 2. 4. Overall EfficiencyAs the name overall depicts, it is the resultant efficiency of a jet engine can have which is simply the product of the thermal and propulsive efficiencies. In mathematical terms, it is represented as shown below. ?O=? TH p =12? meVe2-12? m0V02mfuel? NCV? T? V012? meVe2-12? m0V02 =T? V0mfuel? NCV 2. 2. 5. Specific Fuel Consumption Specific fuel consumption as any other performance characteristics is a ratio and surprisingly it has a major effect on the economics of the aircraft as it is used to determine the aircrafts flight ticket costs. Specific fuel consumption has different expressions depending on what type of jet engine it is. For instance, in ramjet, turbojet and turbofan jet engines, it is the measure of the fuel mass flow rate to the thrus t force generated.Also, it is sometimes called the thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC). TSFC=mfT However, in turbopropeller jet engines, it is the ratio of the fuel mass flow rate to the power generated in the engine shaft by the turbomachinery. It is sometimes referred to as the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC). TFSC=mfSP 2. 2. Fuel and Propellants for Jet Engines Fuels can implicitly be defined as substances used to add heat energy to a system through combustion or other processes. Fuels are mostly hydrocarbons like kerosene, diesel, petrol, alcohol, paraffin and butane and can also be in the form of individually free reactive molecular substances like hydrogen or chemical composites like natural gas, coal, wood.The gaseous state substances used as fuels such as hydrogen, and natural gas (94% methane and 6% ethane) are usually made into a cryogenic state as in liquefied at very low temperature because of their low boiling point. It can easily be asserted by anyone that t he only purpose that fuels have in jet engines is to add energy but little do they know that the purposes grows as the speed of the aircraft increases. For instance, Kerrebrock (2002) stated that supersonic aircrafts which attains very high stagnation temperature that can create destabilization to the airframe structure, engine component and organic substances like lubricants, uses its fuel as a coolant to this parts or components.The energy added by the fuel burned per unit mass of air flow is called the heating value of the fuel and it is a very crucial parameter to be defined before any combustion process analysis is done on a jet engine since it shows how complete the combustion process is through efficiency. The heating value can either be said to be higher or lower depending on if the water product of combustion is a vapour or a liquid. Since the combustion process in jet engine produces vaporised water, the lower heating value of the fuel is used. The most frequently used fue ls for jet engines are kerosene jet A1, A2, JP10 and many more but diesel can also be used. The disadvantages of these fuels are their inevitable emission of toxic substances that contribute to greenhouse effect and their risk of depletion.Accordingly, this has been the driving force for the use of alternative fuels such as cryogenic hydrogen and natural gas which is believed will reduce toxic emissions. Besides, hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier and possesses almost no risk of toxic emission since most of its combustion product will be water Chiesa and Laozza (2005). Chapter 3 Turbofan Jet Engine 3. 1. Introduction Between 1936 and the next decade when turbofan engines were invented, people showed little or no interest in them as they described them to be a complicated version of a turbojet engine. However, in 1956, the benefits of turbofan engines started to be noticed as major companies like Rolls-Royce and General Electric began manufacturing them.Since then, it is been o ne of the most used jet engine for commercial purposes because of its low fuel consumption and less noise production. In fact, it has been concluded to be the most reliable jet engine ever manufactured El –Sayed (2008). The turbofan jet engine gas generator unit comprises of a fan unit, compressor section, combustion chamber and turbine unit. Fundamentally, a turbofan jet engine operates as a result of the compressors pressuring air and supplying it afterwards for further processing. The majority of the pressurised air is bypassed around the core of the engine through a duct to be mixed or exhausted whereas the rest of it flows into the main engine core where it combusts with the fuel in the combustion chamber.The hot expanded gas products from the combustion process passes through the turbine thereby rotating the turbine as it leaves the engine. Consequently, the rotating turbine spins the engine spool which in turn rotates the other turbo machinery in the engine. This cause s the front fan to pressurise more and more air into the engine for the process to start all over again in continuous state. The turbofan engine is believed to be the perfect combination of the turboprop and turbojet engine and as a result, its advantages are usually compared to that of the turboprop and turbojet. In fact, Kerrebrock (1992) said that turbofan engine provides a better way of improving the propulsive efficiency of a basic turbojet.It is asserted that at low power setting, low altitude condition and low speed, the turbofan engine is more fuel efficient and has better performance than a turbojet engine. Unlike turboprop engine where vibration occurs in the propeller blades at relative low velocities, the fan in the turbofan engine can attain high relative velocities of Mach 0. 9 before vibration occurs. Also, since the fan in turbofan engines has many blades, it is more stable than the single propeller so even if the vibration velocity is reached, the vibration will not destabilize the airflow because the vibrations are almost negligible. Since the flow into the diffuser of the turbofan is usually subsonic, there very slim chances of shock waves being developed at the entrance. 3. 2. Classification of Turbofan EnginesThere are various types of turbofan engine ranging from high and low bypass ratio, afterburning and non-afterburning, mixed and unmixed flow with multi-spool, after fan and geared or ungeared. The classification of the various types of turbofan engines is shown below in figure 1. Nonetheless, the type of turbofan engine that would be used for the purpose of this dissertation is a forward fan two spool mixed flow turbofan engine. This type of turbofan engine was chosen because it is the compromise of a simple and complex turbofan engine. This is said because it comprises of almost all the classes of a turbofan which are low bypass ratio, forward fan with mixed flow, twin spool with ungeared fan.Moreover, because of the mixed flow intro duced, it produces additional thrust in the hot nozzle compared to the high bypass and it can also permit the addition of afterburner which produces a lot of thrust while consuming a lot of fuel which makes it suitable for military application which shows little worry on fuel consumption. In essence, carrying out a study on this type of turbofan engine will be of great relevance to the military air force sector especially if new research is discovered. TURBOFAN ENGINES Low Bypass Ratio Aft Fan Forward Fan Nonafterburning Afterburning High Bypass Ratio Geared Fan Single Spool Short Duct Ungeared Fan Two Spool Mixed Fan and Core Flow Unmixed Flow Long Duct Three SpoolFigure 1 Classification of Turbofan Jet Engines (El-sayed, 2008) 3. 3. Major Components of Turbofan Engine 3. 4. 1. Diffuser or Inlet Diffuser is the first component that air encounters as it flows into the engine. Basically, the purpose of a diffuser is to suck in air smoothly into the engine, reduce the velocity of the air, increase the static pressure of the air and finally, supply the air in a uniform flow to the compressor. Given the fact that overall performance of an engine is highly dependent on the pressure supplied to the burner, it is necessary to design a diffuser that incurs the minimum amount of pressure loss.To demonstrate this, Flack (2005) stated that if the diffuser incurs a large total pressure loss, the total pressure in the burner will be reduced by the compressor total pressure ratio time this loss. In other words, a small pressure drop in the diffuser can translate into a significant drop in the total pressure supplied to the burner. Another point taken into consideration when designing a diffuser is the angle because if the angle is too big, there will be tendency of eddy flow generation due to early separation. The major causes of pressure losses in the diffuser are as follows. First, losses due to generation of shock waves outside the diffuser and it majorly occur in super sonic diffusers.Secondly, the loss due to the unfavourable or adverse pressure gradient of the diffuser geometry which makes the flow separate a lot earlier and generates eddies. This separation causes a convergent area which makes the velocity not to be reduced by much. Due to the separation, the wall shear deteriorates the static pressure even further. Further analysis done by El-Sayed (2008), describes ways of accounting for this losses like using Fanno line flow and combined area and friction. Thermodynamic Process Equation In this analysis, the loss due to heat transfer is negligible so the process can be adiabatic. The initial kinetic energy is used to raise the static pressure p0 to the total pressure ? =pt2pt0 (inlet pressure recovery) efficiency ? d=IdealReal=ht2s-h0ht2-h0 assuming the gas is ideal and the specific heat at constant pressure is constant efficiency ? d=Tt2s-T0Tt2-T0 simplifying the equation given that ht0=ht2=ht2s and Tt2=Tt0and pt2s=pt2 TtT0=1+? -12M02 and T tT0=ptp0? -1? pt2p0=1+ ? d? -12M02 -1 3. 4. 2. Fan And Compressors Compressor is a very crucial component for the operation of an engine in the sense that it prepares the air for the combustion process in the burner. The main purpose of a compressor as the first rotating component is to use its rotating blades to add kinetic energy to the air and later translate it into total pressure increase.There are basically two types of compressors which are the centrifugal and the axial compressor. Firstly, centrifugal compressor as the name implies changes the direction of an axial airflow to a radial outflow of the air. It was the early compressors adapted in jet engines. It comprises of three main parts which are the impellers, the diffusers and the compressor manifold. The purpose of the impeller is to change the direction of the flow from axial to radial and at the same time increases its static pressure. The diffuser slows down the airflow and further increase the static pressure as it is supplied axially by the compressor manifold to the combustion chamber.The centrifugal compressor is advantageous because the cost of manufacturing it is low compared to axial compressor and as a result is suitable for small engines like turboshafts and turboprops. It is also advantageous because the pressure ratios at single stage are higher than that of the axial compressor. The centrifugal compressor has the tendency of attaining low flow rates and as a result is ideally suitable for helicopters and small aircrafts which require low flow rates. On the other hand, the centrifugal compressor cannot attain high pressure ratio and so it is not suitable when high peak efficiency is required. It incurs a lot of losses due to the change in direction. Secondly, an axial compressor is the most reliable type of compressor and is usually applied when higher pressure ratios of up to 40:1 are required.An axial compressor does not change the axial flow direction of the air but increases the total pressure. Indeed, an axial compressor comprises of three major components which are the rotor with blades, stator can and the inlet guide vane. A stage is a combination of a stator and a rotor. The assembly of the full rotor blade and stator can form the number of stages in a compressor and the greater the number of stages, the higher the total pressure ratio. In this arrangement, the air flows into the inlet guide vane and then into the rotor and stator assembly where compression starts. Also, the length of the rotor and stator reduces along the whole unit which signifies a reduction in volume which induces the increase in pressure.A fan or low pressure compressor is a type of axial compressor but the only differences are that the blades are longer, the total pressure ratio is lower than the typical compressor and the number of stages is usually 1 or 2. The main purpose of creating a fan is to compress more air and to create a bypass air which can be used to generate addition thrust or used for mixing process. Fan Equation Process Given that, isentropic efficiency ? fan= Ideal CycleActual cycle=ht3s-ht2ht3-ht2 Since the specific heat is constant, the equation deduces to ? fan=Tt3s-Tt2Tt3-Tt2 Simplifying the equation whenpt3s=pt3, Tt3sTt2=pt3pt2? -1? , ? fan=pt3pt2 and ? fan=Tt3Tt2 ? fan=? fan? -1? -1? fan-1 Bypass Ratio=msma where ms is the bypass flow rate and ma is the engine core flow rate.For the high pressure compressor, the equations remain the same as that of the fan except the changes in station numbering and the bypass ratio. 3. 4. 3. Combustion Chamber/ Burner The combustion chamber as the Brayton cycle implies is the only source of heat energy addition to the system. Accordingly, the combustion chamber causes very significant increase in the temperature of the air which results in the air gaining enormous internal energy. This energy gained is extracted to be used to power the turbine while the rest is used to create highly accelerated gases from the nozzle. There are three types of combustor namely; the can combustor, the annular combustor and the cannular combustor.The main considerations when designing a combustion chamber is to ensure that the combustion process is complete with no fuel waste, the combustor should have long life materials because any failure can lead to engine explosion. The other consideration is that the air must be heated enough above the ignition fuel temperature in order to ensure stoichiometric combustion. Equations of the Combustion Chamber In the real process of the combustor, total and static pressure drops and the temperature also drop. The major causes of pressure losses are the high level of irreversibility or non-isentropic process and viscous effects in the burner. The burner pressure ratio ? =pt5pt4Burner temperature ratio ? b=Tt5Tt4 Since no work is done only heat transfer, the efficiency of the burner is analysed using the heating value NCV of the fuel used. Thus, efficiency ? b=hea t addedHeating value of fuel=ma+mfht5-maht4NCVmf Given that f=mfma, ? b= 1+fht5- ht4NCVf Equivalence Ratio of combustion It is the ratio of the actual fuel to air ratio of the combustion process to the stoichiometric fuel to air ratio. This ratio produces a means of classifying the combustion process to show whether it is a lean, rich or stoichiometric combustion. The mathematical expression for this is as shown below ? =Actual FARStiochiometric FAR 1 Rich combustion process 3. 4. 4. Turbine Turbine can simply be said to be the antonym of a compressor. In response, a turbine extracts molecular kinetic energy from the air and uses it to drive the turbo machineries which results in the pressure and temperature of the air to drop. If truth be told, Flack (2005) asserted that the turbine uses 70% to 80% of the total energy gained by the air in the combustion chamber to drive the turbo machineries while the remaining 20% to 30% is used to generate thrust in the nozzle.Since the geometry of a turbine have favourable pressure gradient unlike the compressor which is adverse, the efficiency of the turbine is usually very high. Since the turbine is the opposite of the compressor, it has exactly the same configuration of rotor and stator but the volume increase across it which induces the pressure drop. One major problem faced when design a turbine is the deterioration of the blades due to high inlet temperature from the combustion chamber. Based on this, (Song et al. 2002) demonstrated that General Electric uses about 16. 8% of the compressor air to cool the turbine blades of GE 7f engine. Turbine Equation Analysis Given that, Turbine efficiency ? T=ActualIdeal=ht6-ht5ht6s-ht5 T=Tt6-Tt5Tt6s-Tt5 Simplifying the equation given that pt6s=pt6 Tt6sTt5=pt6pt5? -1? ?T=pt6pt5 ? T=Tt6Tt5 ?T=? T-1? T? -1? -1 3. 4. 5. Exhaust Nozzle The nozzle is the final component of the jet engine that the air passes through. The main purposes of the nozzle is to add extra acceleration to the h igh velocity exiting air, reduces its total pressure to that of ambient condition and finally generate sufficient thrust. There are two conditions that occur in the exit of the nozzle depending on the ambient pressure. The first condition is termed under-expansion which occurs when the ambient pressure is less than the exit pressure of the gases.The result of this is that the exit velocity will be lower than it normally is and this makes the momentum component of thrust to be lower than ideal. On the other hand, it will create a positive thrust component for the pressure terms. The second case termed as overexpansion which occurs when the ambient pressure is greater than the exit pressure of the gases. Consequentially, the opposite of what happens in the under-expansion condition occurs where the pressure term is lower and the momentum is higher. Nozzle efficiency ? n=ActualIdeal=ht8-h9ht8-h9s=Tt8-T9Tt8-T9s for constant specific heat Using the steady state energy equation and balanc ing it out, U9=2ht8-h9 . When specific heat is constant U9=2cpTt8-T9 p9pt8=T9sTt8? -1? T9Tt8=11+? -12M92 p9pt8=11+? -12M92-1+ ? n ? n 3. 4.Thermodynamic Process and Cycle of Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Before any explanation is done from Figure 2, the blue arrows represent the incoming air into the diffuser and the red represent the air flow into the core of the engine while the black arrow represent the bypass air flow through the fan. Finally, the brown arrow represents the air flow after the bypass air and the core air flow have mixed. Based on the arrangement of the turbofan engine in figure 2, it can be seen that air at ambient condition is sucked into the diffuser where the air velocity is reduced and some of its kinetic energy is used to increase the static pressure to the total pressure. The air exiting the diffuser enters the fan or low pressure compressor where it is compressed. Indeed, the molecules of the air gains kinetic and internal energy by colliding rapid ly with one another and as a result increase the enthalpy and static pressure.Also, in the fan, some of the compressed air is bypassed through a duct to be used for the mixing process later while the rest of the air enters into the high pressure compressor of the engine core. In the high pressure compressor, the air is further compressed where the enthalpy and pressure increases as it is released into the combustion chamber. Also, in the high pressure compressor, some of the air mass flow rate is bled out to be used to cool the turbine blades and for air conditioning in the aircraft. In the combustion chamber, the incoming fuel reacts with the air in an oxidation process at constant pressure where the by-product gases gain molecular kinetic energy thereby increasing the enthalpy.This high temperature gases escapes into the high pressure turbine where it is expanded and the gases lose some of their kinetic molecular energy as it enthalpy and static pressure reduces. In other words, i t can be said that the molecular kinetic energy of the gases is being converted to mechanical work which is used to power the high pressure spool. Consequently, the gases enters into the low pressure turbine where it is further expanded to a lower pressure and enthalpy as their molecular kinetic energy is converted to mechanical work to power the low pressure spool. These gases escaping from the low pressure turbine enters the mixing zone or mixer after it has lost most of its total enthalpy and mixes with the bypassed cold air from the duct to further reduce its enthalpy as that of the cold air increases.In other words, the cold air absorbs some of the heat energy from the hot gases until they both attain equilibrium enthalpy. The mixture of the cold air and hot gases both escape at the same equilibrium enthalpy and pressure through the nozzle where their velocity is increased and the pressure is reduced considerably to that of the ambient condition. Furthermore, the exhausted high velocity gases is used to produced thrust for propulsion according to Newton’s third law of motion (In every action, there is equal and opposite reaction). 2 4. 5 6 4 13 0 HPC DIFFUSER FAN/LPC HPT LPT NOZZLE COMBUSTION CHAMBER 2. 5 3 5 8 16 BYPASS DUCT HP Spool LP Spool MIXING ZONEFigure 2 Layout of a Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine P0 P3 P4. 5 P5 P8 P6 P2. 5 P2 P13 P4 ENTROPY (S)(kJ/kg) TEMPERATURE (K) Figure 3 T-S Diagrams for the Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Chapter 4 Mathematical and Gas Turb 11 Modelling of the Engine 4. 1. Station Numbering and Assumptions Station numbering is a very crucial step that has to be taken when analysis of any thermodynamic system involving many processes is to be done. Moreover, station numbering contributes immensely to showing how the properties of one process relate to another and how the interaction between these processes derives the functional relationship of the thermodynamic system.Returning to the work in hand, the station numbering system that has been adopted for this work on a JT8D-15A turbofan engine is in accordance with the Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) and it is shown in figure 2. Assumptions The following assumption were made based on Mattingly (2002) and Kurzke (2007) in order to perform the modelling as listed below * The air flow through the engine is assumed to be steady and one dimensional * The fan and the low pressure Compressor are driven by the low pressure turbine * The overall engine is assumed to have no bleeds in mass flow or power off-take in turbine. * The nozzle of the engine is choked which means the exit pressure will be greater than the ambient pressure. The air is assumed to act as a half ideal gas where the specific heat and ratio is dependent on temperature only. * The areas of each station of the engine is assumed to be constant 4. 2. Design Point Cycle Analysis of the Turbofan Engine The off-design or performance cycle analysis cann ot be done without the design point cycle being defined. The design point cycle in this analysis is obtained using exactly the same data used in the actual test analysis for a JT8D-15A turbofan engine operating at sea level with maximum take-off thrust as shown in (â€Å"JT8D Typical Temperature and Pressure†) and (â€Å"ICAO†). Some of the input parameters such as the isentropic efficiencies and pressure ratios from the actual test data had to be calculated.Since not all the input parameters were given from the actual test data, some of the parameters like inlet corrected mass flow rate, diffuser pressure ratio and efficiency; mechanical spool efficiency had to be guessed in order to complete the analysis and the data are represented below in Table 1. With all the Input Parameter being specified as shown in table 1, the design point cycle simulation of the JT8D-15A turbofan Engine using the Gas Turb 11 software can then be performed. All the steps taken to model the m ixed flow turbofan engine on Gas Turb 11 is clearly represented in the algorithm shown in figure 3 below. COMPONENT| INPUT PARAMETER| | DIFFUSER| Pressure Ratio (? d)| 1| | Inlet Corrected Mass Flow Rate (mc2)| 138. 618 kg/s| FAN| Pressure Ratio (? fan)| 2. 054| | Isentropic Efficiency (? fan)| 0. 78| | Bypass Ratio (? )| 1. 08| Low Pressure Compressor (LPC)| Pressure Ratio (? LPC)| 4. 7| | Isentropic Efficiency (? LPC)| 0. 88| | Nominal Low Pressure Shaft Speed (NLP)| 8160RPM| High Pressure Compressor (HPC)| Pressure Ratio (? HPC)| 3. 77| | Isentropic Efficiency (? HPC)| 0. 864| | Nominal Low Pressure Shaft Speed (NHP)| 11420RPM| Combustion Chamber (cc)| Pressure Ratio (? CC)| 0. 934| | Isentropic Efficiency (? CC)| 0. 99| | Burner Exit Temperature (TIT)| 1277. 15K| High Pressure Turbine (HPT)| Isentropic Efficiency (? HPT)| 0. 9| | HP Spool Mechanical efficiency (? m)| 1| Low Pressure Turbine (LPT)| Isentropic Efficiency (? LPT)| 0. 91| | LP Spool Mechanical efficiency (? m)| 1| T able 1 Input Parameters for the Design Point Cycle Simulation STARTSpecify all the input data gotten from the actual test data as shown in Table 1 Run the Gasturb 11 software and select mixed flow turbofan from the drag down Tab list. Set the scope to ‘More’, set the Calculation Mode as Design and click ‘Run’ Choose the Units to either Imperial or SI and Select the type of fuel from to drop down list to Kerosene, Natural Gas or Hydrogen Estimate the inlet Corrected mc2 Mass Flow rate to the FAN/LPC Choose ‘Single Cycle’ for ‘Select a Task ‘Option and click ‘Run’ Check if the Thrust, SFC, ? HPT, ? LPT and EPR are within (0-10) % of the actual test Experiment END YES NO Figure 4 Design Point Cycle Simulation Algorithm Using Gas Turb 11 Verification of the Design Point simulation ResultsSince not all the input parameters were specified in the actual test data and some of them had to be guessed, it is without any doubt that errors are bound to generate in the simulation results using the Gas Turb 11 software. In order to ensure that the errors accumulated in the simulation were within range, the major output parameters obtained such as net thrust, fuel flow rate, Engine exit pressure ratio, etc were compared to the actual test data as shown in Table 2 and the error range was calculated to be between 0. 25% to 8. 5% which is within an acceptable range. PARAMETERS| ACTUAL TEST DATA| SIMULATED DATA USING GASTURB 11| Net Thrust| 69307. 74| 69320| Engine Exit Pressure Ratio P8P0| 2. 09| 2. 167|Burner Fuel Flow| 1. 100843| 1. 09781| HPT pressure Ratio (? HPT)| 0. 415| 0. 449| LPT Pressure Ratio (? LPT)| 0. 3294| 0. 3514| HPT temperature Ratio (? HPT)| 0. 8097| 0. 8435| LPT temperature Ratio (? LPT)| 0. 7718| 0. 793| Table 2 Comparison Table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Data Using GasTurb 11 4. 3. Off-Design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine The off-design or performance cycle simulatio n takes into account the concept of module matching of each component through performance maps. This cycle analysis enables the determination of different operating point of the engine at a given design point of the engine.Considering the work in hand, the design point have been defined and verified for the JT8D-15A turbofan engine operating at sea level with maximum take-off thrust which means that different operating points of the engine can be defined with the concept of off-design module matching of the engine. Indeed, the off-design operating point that was considered for the parametric analysis in this work was 30,000ft at M0 0. 8 for the turbofan engine. The off-design modelling of the JT8D-15A engine for the operating point of 30,000ft at M0 0. 8 based on the reference design point defined earlier is clearly demonstrated as follows. The off-design performance cycle simulation may contain some errors because of the component performance maps that were used for the simulation. 4. 3. 1. Module/Component Matching This process only applies to the off-design performance cycle point of the engine.It can simply be defined as the act of synchronising each component of a jet engine to coexist as a unit in order to derive the overall performance characteristics of the jet engine. Component matching involves the process closely studying the ramifications of the actual jet engine overall performance behaviour on the components major characteristics such as pressure ratio, temperature ratio, efficiency and spool speed. This process introduces the concept of empirically determined component performance maps that establishes the relationship between the thermodynamic properties and the geometry of the jet engine itself. 4. 3. 2. Off-Design Component Modelling Diffuser The diffuser was assumed to be adiabatic and the pressure ratio ? d=1 The Isentropic Efficiency was assumed to be 1 For Sea Level,Pamb=101325pa , Tamb=288. 15K For 30,000ft and M0 0. 8, Tamb=288. 15-0. 0 065? 9144 =288. 15-59. 436 =228. 71K Pamb=101325? Tamb288. 155. 2561 =30. 09kpa Tt1=228. 71? 1+? -12M02 =228. 71? 1+1. 4-12? 0. 82 =258K pt1p0=1+ ? d? -12M02 -1 pt1=30. 09? 1+ 1? 1. 4-120. 821. 41. 4-1 pt1=45. 8674kPa pt1=pt2 Tt1=Tt2 Fan and Low Pressure Compressor The inlet corrected mass flow rate is estimated as 138. 618kg/s , As for the off design simulation using the component performance maps for the altitude of 30000ft and Mach no. 0. 8, the actual spool speeds and inlet mass flow rate are calculated based on the estimated inlet corrected mass flow rate as shown below.Low and High pressure spool mechanical efficiency is assumed to be=1 HP spool Speed=11420RPM, LP spool Speed=8160RPM m2=Pt2PSTD? mc2Tt2TSTD =45. 878101. 325? 138. 618258288. 15 Actual Mass flow rate m2=66. 3323kg/s N=Tt2TSTD? NcLP=228. 71288. 15? 8160=7722 RPM The calculated actual mass flow rate and spool speed were used to evaluation the isentropic efficiency and the pressure ratio of the LPC for that operatin g condition from the compressor performance map. Figure 5 Example of a Compressor Performance Map/Curve The diagram above in figure 4 depicts a typical compressor performance map that was used for the off-design point analysis in this work.It can be seen that the x-axis represents the inlet corrected mass flow rate mc2 into the compressor, the y-axis represents the compressor pressure, the red contour lines represents the isentropic efficiencies and the black curved lines represent the relative corrected spool speed. To add to that, the red dash line that ends the speed lines and efficiency lines represent the surge margin which is also known as the stall line that must be avoided since the flow will become unstable in that region. In this work, the inlet corrected mass flow rate and spool speed were calculated which were interpolated on the performance map to obtain the pressure ratio and the isentropic efficiency.For instance, the yellow dot on the map represents a design point tr aced for a given pressure ratio, High Pressure Compressor The inlet corrected mass flow rate into the HPC mc2. 5=mc21+? mc2. 5=138. 6182. 08=66. 64kgs m2. 5=Pt2. 5PSTD? mc2. 5Tt2. 5TSTD N=Tt2. 5TSTD? NcHP The same equation used for the LPC is used to calculate the actual mass flow rate and spool speed which is used to evaluate the isentropic efficiency and pressure ratio when it is operating at an altitude of 30000ft at M0 =0. 8. Verification of the off-design modelling for 30000ft at Mo 0. 8 In order to verify the simulation result gotten for the operational design point of 30000ft at M0 0. , the actual test data results gotten from Mattingly, Heiser and Pratt (2002) for the same operating condition was compared. Due to the difficulties in obtaining a lot of output parameters for this operating point, the result will be verified with only the net thrust generated and the specific fuel consumption. Indeed, the error accumulated was 1. 71% for the net thrust and 0. 83% for the specif ic fuel consumption. PARAMETERS| ACTUAL TEST DATA| SIMULATED DATA USING GASTURB 11| Net Thrust (lb)| 4920| 4836| Specific Fuel Consumption(lb/lbh)| 0. 779| 0. 7855| Table 3 Comparison Table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Off-design Data Using GasTurb 11 Chapter 5Methodology, Results and Discussions Given that the design point of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine at sea level has been obtained and verified with the actual test data, the operating point of 30000ft at M0 0. 8 was simulated and obtained which now served as the design point for the analysis in this work. Moreover, the procedure taken to define this design point of 30000ft at M0 0. 8 of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine has been clearly stated earlier which gives the permission to conduct the parametric cycle study of the turbofan engine. The parametric cycle studies were done for three different cases for the operational design point of 30000ft at M0 0. of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine as explained as follows. 1. The first parametric analysis case 1 aim to create an understanding of the effects of varying major design parameters on the performance parameters of the turbofan engine when some of the design choices are kept constant. In other words, the bypass ratio and thermal limit parameter (turbine inlet temperature) were varied when the design choices such as the compressor pressure ratio, fan pressure ratio and isentropic efficiencies were kept constant in order to investigate their effects on the performance parameters such as the net thrust, specific fuel consumption, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency, and fuel-air-ratio.Much interest is shown nowadays in using alternative fuels like hydrogen and Natural gas in efforts to reduce the cancer known as pollution and the risk of depletion of energy resources. Based on this, conducting a research that focuses of comparing different fuels consumption rate, their risk of pollution and their contribution to the performance of the engine will be re ally valuable. Based on this, a parametric analysis had to be done on the JT8D-15A turbofan engine using three different fuels which are the design point fuel kerosene, hydrogen and natural gas. Since the original design point of the JT8D-15A turbofan was obtained using kerosene fuel, the design points of using hydrogen and natural gas was obtained using the same design choices as that of kerosene.Now that the design points of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine had been defined when using the three different fuels, it had given a go ahead to perform whatever parametric cycle studies of the turbofan engine using the three fuels. In order to compare the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when it is using the three different fuels, different approaches had to be devised to compare them effectively on a rational basis which defines the last two parametric analysis cases as follows. 2. The second case of parametric analysis was that the fuel flow rate would be kept constant for the three fuels that would be used as the bypass ratio is varied with design choices remaining the same. 3.The third case of study was to make the energy supply into the combustion chamber of the turbofan engine the sa