Rates of Reactions Essay

Apparatus: 4 beakers (250 ml), 4 test tubes (18 mm x 150 mm), centigram balance, test tube rack, measuring cylinder (25 ml), marking pen, stop watch, thermometer, water and ice cubes, top pan balance, hot plate, power source, safety goggles, a lab coat, 3.0 molar hydrochloric acid and uniform size of marble chips. METHOD: 1. Label four 250 ml beakers A, B, C & D. 2. Pour150 ml of water into beakers A, B and C only. In this experiment, these beakers will be used as water baths and for this reason, place a thermometer in each of these beakers to check the water bath temperature. Beaker D is to remain empty until step 9. 3. Put a test tube containing 10ml of 3.0 molar of hydrochloric acid into each of the beakers (A, B and C) partly filled with water. 4. Place the beakers (B and C) containing the test tubes on an electrical hot plate, switch on the power and place a thermometer into each of the four test tubes. 5. Read each thermometer until the water in beaker B reaches 37Â ºC and the water in beaker C reaches 100Â ºC (i.e. when the water boils). At these points, remove the beakers from the hot plate and switch off the power. 6. Wait a few minutes and check the thermometers until the test tube temperatures are constant, and similar to the temperature of the water bath. 7. Add 0.25 g of weighed marble chips to beaker B (37Â ºC), and time the period of reaction between the marble chips and the hydrochloric acid with a stopwatch. When all the marble chips have fully dissolved and the reaction ceased, stop the stopwatch and note down the time taken for the reaction. 8. Write down these results into the results table and repeat this process for beaker C (at 100Â ºC) and beaker A (at room temperature – approximately 20Â ºC). 9. Finally with beaker D, place a thermometer in this beaker to provide a temperature check and then add 150 ml of crushed ice to act as a constant temperature ice bath. Again, wait a few minutes and check the thermometers until the test tube temperatures are constant and similar to the temperature of the ice in the beaker (I.e. 0Â ºC). Add 0.25g of weighed marble chips. Then finally use the stopwatch to time how long it takes for the marble chips to dissolve in the hydrochloric acid and write down the results. 10. Clean up used materials and wash hands thoroughly. VARIABLES: Independent Variables: Temperature. Dependent Variables: The reaction time. CONTROLS: The standard 10 ml volume of 3.0 molar hydrochloric acid in each test tube, the mass, uniform size and surface area of the five marble chips placed into each acid, constant temperature measurement using a thermometer for each beaker and test tube (I.e. A: 20Â ºC, B: 37Â ºC, C: 100Â ºC and D: 0Â ºC) and time observation using a stopwatch to measure the duration of reaction time of acid on the marble chips. RESULTS: This table clearly shows that the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate. In these experiments, I used five marble chips for each test tube to ensure consistency and therefore production of carbon dioxide. CONCLUSION: This experiment showed that the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate and thereby, the faster the production of carbon dioxide from hydrochloric acid acting on marble chips. EVALUATION: My results table above successfully proved that the temperature had a large effect on the rates of reaction and showed that the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of reaction. The rates of chemical reaction increases with temperature, This is because when the temperature is increased, the particles in the solution have more energy and therefore collide more often during a certain period of time. These colliding particles will have activation energy resulting in more successful collisions between particles, the cause of reaction. As shown on my graph, the rate of reaction approximately doubles each time the temperature is increased by 10Â ºC. With regard to sources of error, some time was taken to press the stopwatch when the marble chips had thoroughly dissolved. This would have altered the length of reaction time a little bit and therefore alter the rate of reaction results. At first, I weighed one marble chip and multiplied it by 5 to get the mass of five marble chips. As this would have made my results inaccurate, I weighed the five marble chips all together to get the exact mass of 0.25g.

Work force Up-skilling

Organisations usually view its work force as their driving force. The work force is believed to be the determinant of how far the company will go in terms of achieving its objectives. Organisations usually formulate strategies aimed at upskilling this workforce. This is usually done through methods aimed at improving the skill possessed by its workers. Organisations usually formulate strategies, which are aimed at achieving their workforce level objectives (Argyris, 1976p. 34-56). Since the organisations are required to try and create a team that possess high skills the process of coming up with a workforce of higher skill need not be universally accepted. The companies are supposed to adopt a way of moving towards higher skill that fits its requirements (Terry, 1960p. 104-109). This method of creating a workforce of higher skill should be formulated the best way possible an organisation can manage considering its requirement in terms of organizational strategy (Torbert, W. 2004p. 41-42). Workforce structure. Work force in organisations is usually composed of two categories depending on the type of workers. These categories are: – (i) Skilled workers (ii) Unskilled workers Skilled workers refers to workers of organisations who are believed to possess qualities such as possession of a certain level of good education in their field of specialisation. The Skilled workers are also believed to have acquired experience in their fields of specialisation. Skilled workers are required to have other features that enable them to be termed as efficient in their duties. Examples of these features include good communication skills and also interpersonal skills which aid incase one has to work in a group. Skilled workers are also termed as having broad level of general knowledge which is a factor in efficiency in their duties. Examples of skilled workers include Mechanical engineers, doctors, management accountants, finance officers and also civil engineers. Unskilled workers are workers in organisations who do not need to have any educational (formal) background. These workers need not have any experience to get jobs in an organisation. Unskilled workers are believed to have no skill for the jobs they carry out for organisations. These are the workers in an organisation who are believed to be at the bottom under the consideration of the level of qualifications. Most of the employees who are unskilled in organisations include cleaners and also loaders in stores. According to statistical data in the UK the skilled workers usually get the task of seeking employment easy. This is because most of the employment vacancies available are skilled occupations. It has been found that out of every 1,000 skilled job seekers, 75% end up succeeding. The statistical data has also revealed that the organisations in the UK give better working conditions to the skilled employees. It has been found that this preference in terms of better working conditions to skilled workers is usually an attempt by the organisation to maintain skilled teams in their organisation. This is not the case with unskilled workers. These workers find it hard to get good working conditions in organisations (Bass, & Avolio1995p. 100-123). The reason deducted for this occurrence is the fact that unskilled workers are readily available and incase their turnover tends to be high, there is no actual loss to the organisation. Human resource management refers to the process of handling matters concerning work force in an organisation. Each organisation usually has a department overseeing the efficiency of its work force. The human resource management is done by application of various models such as the goal Management Model. This human resource management model emphasizes on the need for organisations to handle their human resource in a manner likely to lead to the goal achievement. In the even of workforce upskilling a company should create a team of higher skill through assessment of the company’s goals. The organisations should use strategies likely to incorporate the needs of the organisation in terms of employee level of skills. The organisation should apply a strategy based on the level of skills required in achieving given goals. Another example of these models is the Culture change Model this is a model in human resource management which emphasizes that organisation changes their culture (House, 2004p. 23-31), and therefore the employees / workers should be upskilled to match the changes. Kurt Levin developed this model. Open systems Model is another model, which emphasizes that the human resource in an organisation should be managed as per the open system concept. This concept views systems as units that exchange requirements. The model argues that in employee upskilling the organisations should be able to get new employees from outside but not just develop the existing workers (Lowman, 2002p. 54-61). This model gives an organization option of acquiring workers of higher skills. All the three models described above show that there is no generally accepted way of upskilling an organisation workforce. The models suggest that an organisation should adopt a movement, which will be in agreement with the events at the organisation. For example when the organisation is faced with a change in its organizational culture, Lewin’s human resource management model should be adopted. When an organisation finds out that it cannot get the level of skill in the current workforce the open system human resource management model should be adopted, or just develop the existing workers to the level required, a characteristic of the Path Goal leadership model. Organisations usually emphasise on employee development in the attempt to reach a higher skilled work force. Employee development refers to the process in which employees of an organisation are involved in training in the organisation. Employee development involves a programme whereby the employees participate in their own will, the employees schedule their learning hours, the content to be learned is usually extra of what the job training requires and the workers select the content to learn without the influence of the organisations. Most companies in the UK emphasize on employee development since it is believed to give higher skilled employee workforce. Some of the companies in the UK, which emphasize on employee development, include Siemens UK and also Roll Royce Cars. These companies give a given level of provision in terms of sponsorship for employee training in the employee. The personal development theory in employee development argues that workers should be in a position to enhance the programme of employee development. The workers are required to be willing and interested in developing as employees of a given organisation. The employee motivation theory argues that the organisations should put efforts in the process of employee development. The organisations efforts should be in the form of programmes likely to boost the morale of employees (Stacey, 1992p. 31-39). The Benziger theory also provides directions on the employee development programmes in an organisation. In the process of employee development the organisations can create programmes bearing in mind that workforce usually consist of skilled and unskilled workers. The organisations should create programmes likely to give formal education, experience, skills and also general knowledge to the unskilled workforce. This is likely going to improve the skill of employee team hence likelihood of a success towards organizational strategy. The organisations should create programmes which will enable the skilled workforce improve their efficiency and also make them acquire certain level of vital attributes such as confidence and self-initiative (Warneka, 2006p. 23-29). Employee development should be structured in a way likely to make the organizational strategy give desired results. The employee development should be done in a way likely to put all the levels of the work force at a higher level of skill (Burns, 1978p. 65-71). Organisations should not copy the programmes adopted by their competitors or other comparable organisations. Copying of employee development programmes would not help organisations in the process of up-skilling its workforce since it might not suit the organisation. The organisations should structure these programmes as per their workforce requirement bearing in mind that the best workforce is that which is at a higher level in terms of suitability to a specific organization. Conclusion. Organizations should try as much as possible to avoid the perception that, workforce up-skilling is standardised (Heifetz, 1994p. 12-19). Organizations should formulate organizational strategies aimed at effective teams’ suited to the needs of specific company. The above is only possible if the right human resource models are applied and practiced.

Miles Davis and Kind of Blue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Miles Davis and Kind of Blue - Essay Example This "Miles Davis and Kind of Blue" describes the career of Miles Davis, his contribution in jazz music and his album "Kind of Blue". The album in focus, Kind of Blue, was first released in 1959. The importance of this album lies apart from the importance of the innovations that it brought into the field of jazz, in the fact that it is the highest selling jazz album of all time. Its historical importance can be gauged from this fact itself. This album is unique as a result of the revolutionary impact of the chord changes that it effected in the structure of the jazz song. The melody of the song was earlier created through a structure that would be written earlier. However, with the introduction of modal jazz that was not exactly a Davis innovation, there was considerable scope for innovation as the melody was created through changes in the modes of the scale rather than the changes in chords. The dependence on chord was changed in a massive way when it came to Kind of Blue. This is t he reason as to why Davis is considered one of the greatest innovators of the genre. The technique of improvisation was built into the very structure of the composition and melody whereby the progression of the song could then happen through a process of improvisation on the part of the singer. Brought about by Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, this revolution was brought to its logical conclusion by Miles Davis through Kind of Blue, his greatest album (Kaplan). One of the main genres of the twentieth century as far as music is concerned, is jazz. ... This album is unique as a result of the revolutionary impact of the chord changes that it effected in the structure of the jazz song. The melody of the song was earlier created through a structure that would be written earlier. However, with the introduction of modal jazz that was not exactly a Davis innovation, there was considerable scope for innovation as the melody was created through changes in the modes of the scale rather than the changes in chords. The dependence on chord was changed in a massive way when it came to Kind of Blue. This is the reason as to why Davis is considered one of the greatest innovators of the genre. The technique of improvisation was built into the very structure of the composition and melody whereby the progression of the song could then happen through a process of improvisation on the part of the singer. Brought about by Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, this revolution was brought to its logical conclusion by Miles Davis through Kind of Blue, his g reatest album (Kaplan). One of the main genres of the twentieth century as far as music is concerned, is jazz. Apart from the innovations that it introduced into other forms of music, it is also significant for its political importance as a genre that represented the aspirations and cultures of African American communities. The genre provided a voice to several people over the ages, voices that had been marginalized in the schemes of things as they existed earlier. The importance of jazz also lies in the way in which it was used to talk of certain issues that failed to be highlighted earlier as a result of the lack of an appropriate form of music or art. The emergence of jazz gave Black musicians an outlet through its freewheeling style that did not impose any

Going global, acting local - communicating global brands to global Essay

Going global, acting local - communicating global brands to global markets - Essay Example ion of countries, ideas, knowledge and cultures of people from all across the world to develop a unique and distinctive market of consumers with almost similar tastes, preferences, interests, lifestyles, attitudes and behaviors towards a particular product or service. In other words, globalisation refers to international division of consumers who are both willing and able to purchase homogeneous products or services offered by different companies. In addition, it could be said that marketers divide all potential buyers in an international context and then formulate and implement their marketing, promotion and advertising strategies to cater those consumers. This process may involve manufacturing or production in other nations to achieve cost effectiveness while selling or promoting the produce in other countries where demand exists. (Medina and Duffy, 1998, 223-243) and (Levitt, 1983, 93-95) and (Fischer, 2003) Localisation is a process of adaptation to a particular geographic region, area, language or culture in an attempt to tap domestic market of a country. It is about giving a ‘local touch or look’ to products or advertising campaigns (that are offered to international buyers) by relating those goods or services to individuals in a specific target market. This process involves developing new products or innovating existing ones, modifying international promotion campaigns and advertising tactics etc after an in-depth analysis of societal taboos, sensitivities, language, demographic factors, culture and desires. This process is sometimes known as Customisation. (Medina and Duffy, 1998, 223-243) and (Baker, 1985, pp. 146-152) Glocalisation is a process that involves the elements of both globalisation and localisation. It is about tinkering away with the international goods or services to suit the tastes and preferences of domestic consumers from different markets across the globe. (Medina and Duffy, 1998, 223-243) It is worthwhile to mention the fact

Warehouse Group (Strategic Marketing Management ) Assignment

Warehouse Group (Strategic Marketing Management ) - Assignment Example Businesses are consistently faced by dynamism in their operations as they trot towards the envisioned aims and objectives. This therefore calls for substantive strategies that are aimed at restoring the business to its path as well as facing the challenges head on to guarantee continued life and the eventual financial health. The same will see strategies that are market driven that present a strong foundation upon which a business gains a strong standing in its activities. In respect to this, any business foreseeing triumph ought to craft such dimension so as to remain relevant and consistent to the ever changing nature of business environments. By so doing, a firm embraces various strategic perspectives including competition, branding and innovation alongside other aspects that improve the well being of an organization. 2.0 Background information and current situation Operating in New Zealand, The Warehouse Group Limited was established in 1982 and is today rated the biggest retaile r sharing similar characteristics with Walmart located in the USA. It is also listed in the New Zealand Stock Exchange where shares are publicly traded. Nevertheless, The Warehouse majors with more operations than those exhibited by department or discount stores with increased capacity and volume of business. Since its inception The Warehouse has grown tremendously increasing its presence in New Zealand to 83 stores by 2012. It is during this time that a decision to be involved in an acquisition was hatched to increase production and reach more markets for growth and success. The actual business of the Warehouse revolves around grocery as well as non grocery products, an activity that is undertaken broadly in its department store with a workforce slightly exceeding seven thousand employees (Gunter & Mark, 2005). Moreover, there are additional distribution stores that purpose to augment as well as broaden the market reach thus increasing the geographical coverage. The Warehouse also boasts with a number of brand names that are situated around the stores that adds up to its other operations. The presence of gardening facilities also increases the value of business more so in Auckland and Christchurch areas where the Warehouse offers its just brand alongside other brands owned totaling to almost thirty (Krishna, 2007). The Warehouse doesn’t operate in isolation and it’s never a monopoly. It operates in a highly competitive business enviroment since there are other players in the industry who are also aiming at capturing a larger share of the market and also remain relevant. The retail platform is shared by Super Cheap Auto who trade in products related to automobiles, Farmers having department stores across the country dealing with lowscale end of the market, Kmart and Briscoes Group who basically major in homeware and sportsware. Notably, the industry is still attractive to venture in hence there are other potential players who have the urge to sha re in this cake. Subject to time therefore, these players will find their way into this market hence would pose extra competition to Warehouse. With a view to

FRESHFRUIT INC. CASE Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

FRESHFRUIT INC. - Case Study Example r to achieve the setout objective include increasing or reducing promotion expenditure, reduction of the selling price, increasing advertising expenditure and increasing the selling price. Each of the various marketing tools has a direct effect on the gross profit earned in 2013 and market share that will be attained in 2013. Consequently, the management has to undertake a combination of two marketing tools among the various marketing tools level to achieve the 2013 objectives optimally. Owing to the gross profit levels the various marketing tools are able to generate for the organization, the management should consider focusing on undertaking a marketing combination that is capable of attaining the 39% gross profit level of sales revenue and market share of at least 14.2% or closer to that range. This is because any combination of the marketing tool will not be able to achieve a gross profit worth $1,200,000 and market share worth 15% through average computation. Owing to the diverse effect of each level of the various marketing tools available for the management of Fresh-Fruit Incorporation in achieving the setout goals, the optimal combination that should be considered is increase promotion expenditure by 10% and increase in selling price by 3%. This is because the combination of the two selected marketing tools has high potential of enabling the organization to attain results that are close to the operation objectives in 2013 financial year (Quiry & Vernimmen, 2011). An increase in promotion expenditure by 10% according to the simulation developed by the management of the corporation indicates that the firm will be able attain a market share of 14.47% and gross profit increment up to 35.22%. Similarly, an increase in selling price will see the gross profit percentage rising to 37.6% and market share of 14.81%. If the two marketing strategies are combined, they will achieve the highest positioning towards attaining the 2013 financial year compared to other

Exploring the Violence in Television and Its Effect in Childrens Essay

Exploring the Violence in Television and Its Effect in Childrens Psyche - Essay Example Violent content is 9 percent above average in children's programming, and cartoons are the most violent (Center for Communication and Social Policy, 1998). We are all aware that our daily lives are studded with different types of violence. Social psychologists have asserted that much of our behavior is learned by watching others. And what do children see on TV They are exposed to more violence. This further validates what the children have seen in the neighborhood, it makes violence such normal fare -- everyone's doing it, not just in their neighborhood, but all over world. More than the adults, it is the children that have greater propensity to imitate the things they have watched on television. For them, TV represents violence as an appropriate way to solve interpersonal problems, to get what you want out of life, avenge slight injuries and insults and make up for perceived injustices. How extreme is the problem of violence in television Does it really transmit aggressive behavior to children Does it affect their psychological health This paper will try to tackle the link of TV violence and aggression to young viewers and try to analyze what are the possible solutions that can be done to thwart the incremental effects of violence in television. Two large scale studies--the University of P... They counted the number of violent acts using the definition, "the overt expression of physical force, with or without weapon, against self or other, compelling action against one's will on pain of being hurt or killed, or actually hurting or killing" (Gerbner et al. 1978, p. 179). Furthermore, they required that the violence be plausible and credible, which rules out idle threats, verbal abuse, or comic gestures with no credible violent consequences. The violence may be intentional or accidental. In addition, violent accidents, catastrophes, and acts of nature are included. Signorielli (1990) clarified: Any act that fits the definition, regardless of conventional notions about types of violence that may have "serious" effects, is coded. This includes violence that occurs in realistic, serious, fantasy, or humorous contexts. "Accidental" violence and "acts of nature" are recorded because they are always purposeful in fiction, claim victims, and demonstrate power (p. 89). On the other hand, the NTVS (1996) analyzed more than 10,000 hours of television programming across 23 channels over 3 years using the definition of violence as: An overt depiction of a credible threat of physical force or the actual use of such force intended to physically harm an animate being or group of beings. Violence also includes certain depictions of physically harmful consequences against an animate being or group that occur as a result of unseen violent means (p. 1-48). Their interpretation of violence in media messages is based more on harm to viewers than on harm to media characters. It is known that a very small percentage of violent

Micro Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Micro Economics - Assignment Example c) If the economy is using the resources as stated in the question then it is underutilizing the resource availability. In this case it would violate the assumption of full employment. d) This is an unrealistic situation and can be attained only in presence of foreign trade. In order to produce beyond the possibility level, the economy must be able to realize the increase in the availability of resources. Question 2 Answer: Opportunity cost is referred to as the cost of an activity which in measured in regards to the next best alternative foregone. The condition of shortage is the root cause of opportunity cost. If shortage is absent there will be no reason to sacrifice one thing to achieve another. The opportunity cost is likely to be higher for New York City. The reason being the alternative uses for the block are of more value than the block of the suburban city. Question 3 Total Profits = Total Cost – Total Revenue Total Cost = P resource * Q resource and Total Revenue = P rice * Q sold Total Cost = ($40 * 5 units of labor) + ($60 * 7 units of land) + ($60 * 2 units of capital) + ($20 * 1 unit of entrepreneurial ability) = $200 + $420 + $120 + $20 = $760. Total Revenue = $2 * 400 loaves of banana bread = $800. Total Profits = $800 - $760 = $40. The firm will continue to produce as it is earning economic profits. If this firm is typical of the banana bread industry, more resources will flow toward banana bread as other potential firms are attracted to the economic profits in the industry. Question 4 a) For this condition the price will rise while the quantity will fall. b) For this condition the price will fall while the quantity will fall as well. c) For this condition the price will fall while the quantity will rise. d) For this condition the price is indeterminate but the quantity will rise. e) For this condition the price will rise as well as the quantity. f) For this condition the price will fall but it is not possible to determine the demand. g) For this condition the price will rise but it is not possible to determine the quantity. h) For this condition the price will remain indeterminate but the quantity will fall. Question 5 Price falls and demand is inelastic: The total revenue will decrease in this case as demand being inelastic a price fall will bring loss of revenue for the producers. Price rises and supply is elastic: The total revenue will increase in this case as supply being elastic a rise in price will lead to increase in total revenue conditions. Price rises and supply is inelastic: The total revenue will rise in this case as well as this is the opposite case as the above question. Supply being inelastic a price rise will lead to increase in demand conditions and therefore total revenue. Price rises and demand is inelastic: The total revenue will rise in this case. Demand being inelastic a rise in prices will lead to rise in demand and total revenue will rise. Price falls and demand is elastic: The total revenu e will rise in this case. As demand is elastic a fall in price will lead to increase in demand and total revenue will rise. Price falls and demand is unit elastic: In this case the total revenue will remain the same because a fall in price will bring no change in demand conditions and therefore total revenue will remain unaffected. Question 6 Answer: A ceiling on price that is set below the price level at

Should Rich Countries Help the Poor Countries Essay - 1

Should Rich Countries Help the Poor Countries - Essay Example The roots of terrorism can expand to the rich countries which may affect them. Hence for the betterment of these rich countries only it is necessary that they help the poor ones. Thirdly if these rich countries help the poor countries they would be able to have good terms with them and this can help them in increasing their consumer base. It is seen that the population of these third world countries constitutes a large part of the population of this world. Hence if a rich country helps these poor countries they can be assured that their products are being used by the consumers of these poor countries. Hence the economy of the rich countries can also be improved because of this very reason. The opponents of this view on the other hand present with opposing points. The opponents propose that rich countries should not help the poor countries because of the fact that these countries may become stronger and may pose a threat to them in the future. The poor countries may become strong enough to build a military base which can be then used for malicious purposes. In other words, it can pose a threat to the whole world. Secondly, they also propose that the money sent to the poor countries can rather be used by the rich countries for their own betterment. The rich countries should rather use this money for their own people. This would help these people to benefit in terms of finance. In other words, people suffering in these rich countries should be the first priority of these rich countries. Thirdly it is noticed that even if the poor countries are helped by rich ones the money is not utilized in the right place.  

Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle Essay Example for Free

Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle Essay Write a critical analysis of the extract (Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle) discussing the characteristic features of Bunyans Style. Bunyan uses allegory and symbolism throughout Part one. This symbolism is used very effectively in this extract; we can see the powerful images that relate to the spiritual nature of the characters. Doubt is powerful and Bunyan emphasises the danger and trappings of doubt through dramatic phraseology and strong physical images: A very dark Dungeon, nasty and stinking to the Spirit of these two men. Bunyans dramatization of these events reflects also on the escape from the castle. Bunyan epitomises the ultimate despair in order to generate the joy and delight produced in the escape. This allows the reader to view the hope and joy that is present in the promises of God: there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress. And the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out Bunyan also implements the use of dynamic verbs such as flew this makes the reader aware of the ease with which doubt is broken. The discovery of the key of promise, which frees Christian and Hopeful from Doubting Castle; shows the reader the hope that remains even in the toughest of situations. Bunyan tries to make the reader aware of the danger of doubt through symbolism. This allows the reader to be cautious of doubt in his or her own life. This is typical of Bunyan, as his work tends to guide to correction, encourage and to issue caution: Thats good news, good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom and try. Christians realisation of foolishness has the effect of reinforcing the promise of Hope. Bunyans representation of this in the form of a speech allows Christian to persuade the reader to correct their foolish ways: What a Fool, quoth he, am I, thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty? Bunyans use of rhetorical questioning through Christians speech have the effect of encouraging the reader to question themselves. They also challenge the institution of doubt. Throughout part one we see the use of dialogue to encourage or reassure the characters. In this extract we can also view this as Hopeful speaks to Christian and questions his doubt over the situation: ; My brother, said he, rememberest thou not how valiant thou hast been heretofore? This has the effect of not only giving reassurance and encouragement to the characters but also to the reader. The use of pausing ensures that it is well understood. Bunyan uses imagery to create Giant Despair, a large and imposing figure this has the effect of showing the powerful and controlling nature of doubt. However Bunyan also recreates the image of the giant to facilitate the ideas and concepts he wishes. As the escape progresses the reader sees that the large and powerful image is not all that is seems and indeed it eventually leads to its own downfall. Bunyan uses this situation to warn and encourage the reader. It allows them to see that even though trials engulf they never actually succeed. Giant Despair, who, hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so he could by no means go after them. Bunyan uses the Giants wife, Mrs Diffidence, to show the lack of direction that doubt has. It is created by the person and has no power. This has the effect of showing the reader that there is nothing that is worth doubt it is a formality and should be regarded as such. This dramatic characterisation helps to indicate that hope is important and in the setting of this journey it is hope that eventually conquers the situation. Bunyan shows the despondency and discouraging nature of the castle through Hopefuls speech however he also corrects their self-indulgence later in the speech with desire for patience and reliance on God from Hopeful: Also cut off the bread and water from my mouth, and with thee I mourn the light. But let us exercise a little more patience; remember.. The use of such dialogue relates also with Bunyans reliance on the bible as these descriptions may have also linked with the spiritual needs of a Christian. Bunyan uses the very low nature and despair created by doubt and allows the reader to see that hope was always present even if it was not always obvious to the characters. Bunyans use of dialogue extends beyond the pilgrims to the Giant and his wife, Mrs Diffidence. Then he asked her also what he had best to do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound; and he told her. Then she counselled him that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without any mercy. This gives insight to the reader and creates dramatic irony, as the reader is aware of the weakness of the trials. One of Bunyans aims when writing The Pilgrims Progress was the instruction of Christians and throughout this extract we can see the encouragement and warnings that he provides and the way in which his writing reflects the authorial intention of the didactic purpose. Hopeful relates the experience of doubting castle to some of the earlier events in the book such as; the meeting with Apollyon and the valley of the Shadow of death. This has the effect of providing a link between the episodes of the dream, it helps to emphasise the representation of a journey and creates a development within the characters. Bunyan combines many different techniques and forms in the extract but the most effective of these is the dialogue between the pilgrims and also between their tormentors. Then, with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake; and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. This speech allows the reader to be aware of the characters thoughts and emotions; and to immediately identify the characters motives. This also has the effect of furthering Bunyans didactic purpose. The combination of the many effects within The Pilgrims Progress allows it to be enjoyable to all and make it still appreciated from a literary perspective.

Analysis of E-commerce in Kuwait

Analysis of E-commerce in Kuwait Chapter one: Introduction 1.1 Introduction This chapter provides general background information regarding online purchasing behavior with an insight into the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce in general and then specifically in Kuwait. The history of online shopping and internet retailers is presented to better understand e-purchasing behavior alongside a description of general theories of consumer online purchaser behavior and online shopping in Kuwait. The problem definition, research questions and methodology and limitations of the study are then presented, concluding with an outline of the thesis structure. With advances in technology, specifically in the field of electronics and telecommunications, direct business and commerce with new retail approaches have emerged in recent decades to transform the business world. Due to the increase in the number of internet users and developing network technology, new forms of trade have grown from these advances particularly in Electronic Commerce (EC) a term introduced by Kalakota and Whinston in 1997. Electronic commerce has become one of the primary characteristics of the internet era and a significant method of doing business. According to Jelassi and Enders (2005) EC includes e-trading of digital and physical goods all trading steps: online marketing, online ordering, e-payment and distribution. Kalakota and Whinston (1997) pointed out that EC has two forms: business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B). According to Molla and Licker (2001) B2C retailers offer their products and services to their customers. In the last decade, Kha lifa and Liu (2003) stated that ‘we have witnessed a substantial growth of internet based on services, both from traditional companies and pure internet business that are developing online services. Despite apparent growth there are no reliable statistics concerning E-commerce in Kuwait. However there are indications that the volume of e-commerce in Kuwait is growing slowly as discussed by Al-Sabah (2009) Kuwait Financial Forum, the Central Bank Governor stating We expect growth but so far we have not found a proper to be estimated for 2010, it depends on so many variables. In research shown in Economist Information in 2006 involving over 100 countries regarding availability of e-commerce, Kuwait came 50th. As the business world recognised the advantages of such socioeconomic changes, Kuwait began to take note of the advantages of electronic trading and commerce including the set up and development of measurements of electronic trading facilities and venues across the country (Al-Shati, 2009). As e-commerce is newly introduced in Kuwait, in order for Kuwaiti firms to reach world standards there needs to be research in different contexts of e-commerce such as online retailing to utilize opportunities and avoid risk. As observed by Lin (2003) the key to success in e-commerce depends on knowing customers and studying a customers viewpoint. The internet has singlehandedly created a concept shift away from more traditional methods of shopping. Studies by Joines et al. (2003) indicate the number of internet users is constantly increasing which signifies online purchasing is also increasing. Oppenheim and Ward (2006) agreed with Joines et al. (2003) explaining rapid increase was due to the growth of use of broadband technology combined with a change in consumer behaviour. Hollensen (2004) added that the internet has developed into a new distribution channel and evolution of this channel and e-commerce. Constantinides (2004) pointed out that in the influence of the consumer the first step was to identify certain impact aspects when purchasing online regarded as dimensions. Numerous and varied studies have been conducted worldwide to identify the advantages and disadvantages of e-shopping. Bridges and Florsheim (2008) argue that online shopping has advantages for both consumers and retailers. From a consumers point of view they found e-shopping allows a lower price, different alternatives of products/services, and customized products. Additionally they established retailers benefited from online shopping as it allowed them to reach a maximum number of customers, reduce communication costs and rapid transportation. However, e-shopping has also been criticized as online shopping may be considered non-trust worthy due to concerns of security of privacy (personal and financial information), lack of examination of the products, lack of human interaction and a concern the quality of the products will not reach customer expectation. From a retailer perspective the disadvantages of online shopping are providing high quality and creating special services can be very costly for the firm and may not be a good incentive to make consumers purchase (Kim and Forsythe (2009) and Lee et al. (2006). Whether it is a traditional market or online market, Hollensen (2004) pointed out that the retailer should understand the online consumer purchasing behaviour and how individuals make decision and buying choices. Therefore, Kotler and Armstrong (2007) stated that the marketers have developed different theories that can explain why consumers interpret information provided by e-retailer in a certain way, and thereby understand certain behaviours. Several authors have set out different definitions of consumer behaviour. According to Dr. Perner â€Å"consumer behaviour is study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society†. Hollensen (2004) and Constantinides (2004) agreed that consumer online purchasing behaviour is a process of various factors and influences experienced by a consumer before fin ally purchasing products online. Online consumer behaviour researchers have therefore examined the adoption of technology for e-purchasing in different aspects. There appears to be no constant model of online purchasing adoption and behaviour as it depends on the nature of adoption as influenced by characteristics or social issues; Theory of Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Roger (1983). In order to investigate consumer online purchasing behaviour, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) are considered dominant theories to measure online purchase intention and attitude behaviour, with Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) (Taylor and Todd 1995) the extended TPB. On the other hand, one essential model for development technology usage perspective is the Theory of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Davis et al. (1989), which developed into the Online Shopping Acceptance Model (OSAM) (Zhou et al. (2007). E-commerce researchers have measured different approaches for understanding online consumer behavior. Chen and Corkindale (2008) and Hernandez et al. (2009[a]) measured factors that influence consumers online purchasing behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology. Moreover, other authors examined trait attributes, situational factors, web site quality, and individual factors and influences on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online (Monsuwe et al. (2004); Liao and Shi (2009); and Vazquez and Xu (2009)). Chen and Crokindale (2008) agreed attitude and intention have a strong relationship with acceptance of technology and the decision of purchasing online. In addition, innovation characteristics were considered significant factors that influence of technology adoption and purchasing behavior (Rogers, 1983). Therefore in order to understand online purchasing behavior it is important to measure different factors that may influence e-shoppers and determine online shopping based on insight from technology adoption innovation diffusion literature. This study will therefore present the Liu Model (2004) using it to identify factors that influence Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online. It will also measure the relationship between characteristics of internet retailers/consumers and characteristics of innovation, allowing the research to examine the impacts of these characteristics on consumer decision making and then purchasing behavior. 1.2 Online purchasing 1.2.1 History of Online Shopping In the 1990s online shopping emerged as a technological breakthrough and novelty in the business arena. Strengthening year on year in 1994 the first of its kind, an online bank was opened and Pizza Hut offered pizza ordering on their web page. Netscape then presented Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) to secure transactions, an essential feature of e-shopping. In 1995 Bezos launched Amazon.com, one of the most successful online businesses worldwide, followed by ‘e-bay an online auction site. By 1997 an estimated 41 million people were shopping online. With advances in technology in 1998, electronic postage stamps were introduced, whereby individuals could download and print stamps after paying a fee. In 1999, with the first online shop in the UK, The Virtual Mall was also launched, considered the first UK graphical internet shopping mall. The online shopping market developed rapidly from this point as the consumer gained in confidence and knowledge. In 1991, Kuwait University connected all university campuses together with the internet using International Business Machine (IBM) then known as BITNET with the help of Ministry of Communication (MOC) university campuses together. This network was limited to e-mail and other minor services. The National Science Foundation (NSF) agreed to expand the internet services to Kuwait in 1992 (Hussain, 2003). 1.2.2 Kuwaiti Consumer Attitudes Towards Online Shopping Online shopping is a relatively recent phenomenon that has gradually expanded worldwide reaching Kuwait. Compared to traditional stores, e-shopping is far from the target customer in efficacy and provides significant advantages in time saving and low costs. Although developing online shopping in Kuwait advances slowly, it is establishing a solid base as it incorporates a certain lifestyle, is a convenient option and its adventurous nature is attractive to Kuwaiti youths. With these factors increasingly dominant in daily routine, purchasing online has become a natural option in countries such as the USA and economic areas of the EU and the GCC ( Maarafy et al. 2007). Common products selling in Kuwait online are from the USA, the UAE and Asia. According to Forrester research (2008), Global e-commerce spending in 2000 was 132 $ billion, and expected to spend more than 1 trillion by 2012. In GCC capitals, the usage of online shopping behavior is different in the USA compared with and European and Asia Pacific cities. In Kuwait the online shopping concept is relatively in its early stages, however the adoption of online purchasing is expected to grow continually in coming years. With a high level of penetration in neighboring countries online such as Saudi Arabia and UAE, Kuwait will not be far from this diffusion of web shopping. Among the GCC, Kuwait lies 3rd with 10.7% in terms of e-commerce penetration, against 25.1% UAE and 14.3% in Saudi Arabia (Field, (2008)). According to recent worldwide research, as shown in Table 1.1, Kuwaits internet user growth has jumped from 5.8% of the population in 2000 to over 34% in 2008 and five times more users in the same time period and with further growth expected. Table1.1: Growth Internet Users in Kuwait Year Users population % population 2000 150,000 2,424,422 5.8% 2003 567,000 2,530,012 22.4.% 2005 600,000 2,630,775 22.8% 2008 900,000 2,596,799 34.7% 2009 (estimated) Above 900,000 2,692,526 33.4% Source: world wide statistics.com According to Al-Bahar (2009), Kuwait Consumer Adaptors online shopping distinguishes between local and international websites when purchasing online for many reasons. Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online and local websites are still in their infancy and under development. Thus, consumers are oriented to external websites they have established reputations, are trustworthy and provide an assurance of quality of their products. Express delivery firms such as Aramex and DHL compete to provide their services for delivery products in efficacy and effectiveness to encourage customers to e-purchase (Al-Abdullah, 2009). However, according to Al-Awan, (2008) e-shopping in the Kuwait market is still in its development stage through lack of organization. In order to enlighten and educate consumers, huge effort needs to be made with responsibility on the retailer to reach their maximum number of potential customers in order to realize value. Recently online businesses have started to establish themselves as limited e-firms providing products and services for Kuwaiti customers. 1.3 Problem definition E-commerce penetration: With the adoption of Kuwaiti consumer online purchasing low, the penetration of e-commerce in Kuwait remains relatively slow with a lack of studies relating to Kuwaiti e-shopping adoption. Consumer e-purchasing awareness: Due to a lack of consumer awareness of online shopping it has not been used widely in Kuwait. E-retailer strategies: As online selling is different to offline selling, it is necessary to fully understand consumer behavior in order to set up business strategies for the long term. In addition the rapid development of technology related to the internet enhances the shopping experience and encourages potential customers to purchase online. It is therefore critical for e-retailers to identify what factors influence the consumer when e-shopping. 1.4 Research objectives The overall objective of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of online purchasing behavior in Kuwait and factors affecting their buying decision process. This study is therefore focusing on the following objectives: To investigate the key factors affecting online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers. To explore the impact of the decision making process on Kuwaiti consumers purchasing behavior. To determine the relationship between factors influencing purchasing behavior and the decision making process. 1.5 Research Questions To fulfill the purpose of this research and reach the stated objectives related to consumer purchase online behavior the following research questions need to be addressed: What are the main factors influencing Kuwaiti customers online purchasing? How do these factors affect online purchasing behavior? What is the impact of the decision making process on consumer online purchasing behavior? What is the relationship between factors influencing behavior and the decision making process for e-shopping? 1.6 Research methodology This studys approach is deductive, because it measures factors that affect online shopping to explain Kuwaiti consumer online behavior taken from previous studies in different countries. It is mainly explanatory, developing a deeper understanding of the online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers while investigating varied opinions related to local e-commerce, alongside which factors affect their purchasing behavior. To a certain extent it is exploratory because of a lack of previous research in the online purchase behavior in Kuwait and Gulf region. The study is also mildly descriptive due to previous research of online market phenomena conducted in different countries and extended to Kuwait. Moreover, this research is quantitative in nature using primary data for the survey questionnaire as the main tool of data collection in order to discuss online Kuwaiti consumer purchase behavior. The questionnaire was randomly distributed either in person or through email. The total sample size 500 was distributed in Kuwaiti firms, ministries, universities and public places with 360 respondents. The data collected from the questionnaire is then used to identify relationships and connections between these variables to achieve the studys objectives. 1.7 Limitations In the course of this research a number of limitations were identified as follows: As the research examines consumer online shopping behavior without specifying the type of product exchanged whether tangible or intangible, it is limited in its scope. This study is limited to selection factors covering aspects of Kuwaiti consumer online purchase behavior disregarding other variables of satisfaction, trust, social aspects and situational factors. As with all research using survey data the sample may not be fully representative of the actual behavior in the population, as it is impossible to directly compare our data with data collected on the State of Kuwait level on online purchasing behavior due to time factors. Investigation focuses on online consumer behavior mainly from the customers perspective rather than the retailers perspective. This study evaluates only the online adoption purchasing behavior without evaluation of service quality offered by distinct websites. With a lack of previous research in this topic in Kuwait and the Gulf region, there is little, if any, comparative literature review or use as a framework. 1.8 Thesis structure In the first chapter; an overview of the research area is given, introducing e-commerce in general, then in Kuwait. This is followed by a presentation of the country relevance, the problem definition, the research objectives and questions, the research methodology and the limitations of the study. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of relevant literature concerning the research to draw an understanding of dominant theories that explain online consumer behavior, followed by factors that influence consumer online purchase with an integrated consumer making decision process. Chapter Three covers the research design and methodology exploring the methodology of the strategy of collecting data and analysis of the survey questionnaire to achieve the objectives. In Chapter Four, data analysis presents the empirical data collected with analysis and a survey discussion of the results. Finally in Chapter Five conclusions drawn from the overall study are summarized with recommendations made for future research in the subject area. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction In this chapter an overview and examination of theories of adoption and online technology acceptance behavior from a global perspective is presented, with a comprehensive review of relevant studies conducted on consumer behavior purchasing online with the decision making process. Interactivity is considered a primary principle for the World Wide Web (WWW) with Lee et al. (2006) arguing that â€Å"interactivity is the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time†. The WWW allows unprecedented access to information and markets which has impacted societies globally with people able to search for information and/or purchase product/service online. Factors influencing consumer online purchasing behavior have been explored between 2004/09. Ha and Stoel (2004), Lee et al. (2006) and Hernandez et al. (2009) [b] analyzed the online behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology by identifying the consumer acceptance of innovativeness and frequency of shopping online. Lin and Wang (2008) focused on the decision making process arguing that consumers depend on their experience with repeat shopping. Broekhuizen and Huizingh (2009) agreed adding experience will lead to a strong relationship between different variables (such as saving time/effort, enjoyment and price attractiveness) and intention to purchase. The research of Monsuwe et al. (2004) and Liao and Shi (2009) explored situational factors, trait attributes, individual factors and website quality and impact on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online. This review will therefore cover wide-ranging theories considering the features and benefits of numerous models proposed by such authors studying online consumer behavior. 2.2 Technology readiness and Self-Services Technologies While customer innovation adoption behavior and diffusion of innovations have been investigated for decades, recent interest has turned toward Self-Service Technologies (SSTs). SSTs involves new service access provided via new channels to meet customer demand in an effective and efficient way. Many technological innovations face resistance from customers, due to a lack of experience and uncertainty. Therefore research involves varied measurements such as: innovation characteristics, service quality, individual differences, ease of use and usefulness. Liljander et al. (2006) agreed personal traits suggest influence on customer adoption of SSTs. A study by Parasurman (2000), presented the attitudinal measurement â€Å"Technology Readiness (TR), peoples propensity to embrace and use new technologies for accomplishing goals in home life and at work† stating TR is considered a factor influencing SSTs. The same author explained an individuals positive or negative feeling toward tech nology is dominant identifying TR consists of multi-measurements of: Insecurity, Discomfort, Innovativeness and Optimism. The latter, Optimism refers to the positive view of technology and beliefs of control that enable users to increase convenience, efficiency and flexibility, while, Innovativeness is peoples tendency to open up to technology. Discomfort is an individuals perceived lack of control of technology and has a strong negative influence on SSTs. Insecurity refers to lack of trust in technology and its ability to work effectively. Notably, optimism and innovativeness are considered highly TR individual contributors, with discomfort and flexibility considered to have high level inhibitor attributes decreasing TR. Liljander et al. (2006) proved in their research a positive effect of TR on customers attitude towards using SSTs and their website evaluation, finding technology linked with convenience, freedom and control as vital when building positive attitudes towards using S STs. 2.3 Original theories of consumer online behavior Having reviewed numerous forms of literature no singular constant model has been identified for innovation diffusion and adoption. Innovation technology depends on the nature of adoption influenced by social theory or characteristics of innovation such as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) devised by Davis et al. (1989).Therefore diffusion theory and other factors have been widely used to guide consumer behavior research. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are dominant theories examining consumers online purchase intention and behavior. TAM is considered an initial model for technology usage development, as it is customized to understand the adoption of computer-based technology in the workplace and is used in many studies. Conversely other researchers criticized TAM, because it explores simply the technology side. TRA has evolved from TAM, determining individual attitude toward and behavioral intention to use this new technology. TPB is considered another update from TRA. Theory of Planned Behavior identifies the behavioral intention of purchase online influence with its attitude to technology. Rogers (1983) created a Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) that illustrates adoption of innovation dominant over time in social systems. This theory depends on critical elements, the time of adoption and characteristics of innovation. 2.3.1 Technology acceptance model By using Theory of Reasoned Action as a theoretical base Davis et al. (1989) created a Technology Acceptance Model. TAM is identified a viable paradigm for examining consumer adoption for the new technology and information technology. The genuine TAM determined the actual use of technology, attitude toward using this technology connected with beliefs to define behavioral intention to use new technology as explained by Liu (2004) and illustrated in 2.1. TAM focused on beliefs about the usefulness and ease of use to be a main role in technology adoption behavior. Perceived Usefulness (PU) refers to the degree of potential individual perception that use of new technology will enhance improving performance Davis et al. (1989). Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is identified as an individual perception of using technology not requiring extra effort. Perceived Enjoyment was added later by Davis et al. (1992) and considered â€Å"essential motivation in adoption of new technology, the extent to which the activity of using computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated†. In TAM, behavioral intention to new technology usage was determined by a persons attitude toward using this technology. In addition TAM evolved with an updated version proposed in 2000 by Venkatesh and Davis called TAM2. This new model was influenced by subjective norms, image and output quality. Having examined PU, PEOU and enjoyment in different shopping experiences, Lee et al. (2006) and Bridges and Florsheim (2008) found that seeking hedonic benefit depends on perceived enjoyment through online experience. Hedonic elements may encourage internet use, but not necessarily online buying. Furthermore, an individual consumer may be oriented to seek experiential value through enjoyable browsing or shopping online or for their own fun experience. Seeking utilitarian benefits also relies on perceived ease of use and satisfactory outcomes, in addition to influencing the purchase directly. Utilitarian orientation defined by Bellenger and Korgaonker (1980), Babin et al. (1994) and To et al. (2007) observes orientation or motivation seeking instrumental value to minimize time and effort shopping and cost saving or seeking convenience. Acquired benefit depends on whether the mission of shopping is completed or not. The e-retailers focus providing utilitarian benefits more than hedonic benefits will increase or be completed efficiently during the process of online buying and future intention. 2.3.2 online shopping acceptance model Zhou et al. (2007) proposed an extension model of TAM called â€Å"Online Shopping Acceptance Model† (OSAM). This model considers a general view of online purchasing acceptance from the consumers perspective. These authors also pointed out that in spite of TAM Davis et al. (1989) being broadly used to examine online purchasing environment, it does not analyze specific online shopping characteristics. Therefore OSAM integrated consumer factors in traditional markets and theories may be added to TAM factors to re-examine the issue in the context of online shopping as showed in 2.2. Moreover, OSAM have been developed to predict and explore consumer acceptance e-purchasing by incorporating the beliefs, intention, and attitude behavior relationship into the perspective of perceived usefulness which was replaced by perceived outcomes to cover potential benefits and e-shopping risks. Shopping orientation and motivation have been added from traditional market factors considered antece dents of online purchasing intention and online experience as factors that construct during navigation of e-shopping sites. Also, satisfaction as mediators between behavior and intention has been added. OSAM considers a strong predictor of continue intention to purchasing more than perceived usefulness. Furthermore, this model includes consumer demographics and normative beliefs with their influence on e-purchasing intention. Exploring the development of TAM by introducing OSAM will enhance our understanding of different factors that affect consumer behavior intention. 2.3.3 Theory of reasoned action Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) formulated a â€Å"Theory of Reasoned Action† (TRA), which illustrates behaviors expressed by individual intention to perform a behavior from psychological social factors and aims to examine measurements of that behavior. Based on Marshall et al. (2009) and Lee and Park (2009), they pointed out correlations between beliefs, subjective norms and attitude affects on formation of behavioral individual intention. This intention is influenced by subjective norms referring to the individuals perception with outside influences to perform (or not) a specific behavior to purchase as illustrated in 2.3. While attitude refers to an individual attitude behavior, negative or positive, toward adoption of innovation and brand overall which creates their beliefs about the consequences of adopting and the brands attributes (Jobber, 2004). Beliefs are defined by the persons subjective probability that performing a particular behavior will produce specific results. Four types of belief attitude towards to e-shopping were identified by Vijayasarathy (2002); shopping experience, product perception, customer services and customer risk. This model therefore suggests that external stimuli influence attitudes by modifying the structure of the persons beliefs (Ajzan and Fishbein, 1980 and Ajzen, 1991). Further, TRA provides a strong theoretical basis for studying motivation related decision-making. Using this theory is expected to enhance our understanding toward attitudes and behavioral intention of online shoppers. 2.3.4 Theory of planned behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) can be appraised as an extension of TRA according to Ajzen (1985) used to predict buying behavior based on Bagozzi and Kimmel (1995) and De Cannià ¨re et al. (2009). A central element of this theory is the individual intention to perform a given behavior as shown in 2.4. Ajzen (1991) identified intention as ‘how individuals are willing to try and how much effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior. The same author and Chen and Corkindale (2008) state this theory includes an additional element which is an individual perceived behavioral control (PBC). Compeau and Higgins (1995) cited by Dennis et al. (2009) defined it as a judgment of ones ability to use a computer. PBC is compatible with Banduras (1977, 1982) concept of â€Å"perceived self-efficacy which is concerned with judgments of how well an individual can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations†. In PBC attitude and subje ctive norms factors can predict intention and behavior. According to TPB, PBC together with intention can be used directly to predict behavioral achievement. This model proposes the intention impact and mediates among these factors: 1) intentions are the immediate antecedent of behavior, 2) fully mediate on impact of attitude towards behavior and 3) intentions partially mediate the impact of perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) as illustrated in 2.4. Furthermore, Ajzen stated that the relative importance of predictors in the TPB would be different among behaviors and situations. On the other hand, TPB components can be used according to De Cannià ¨re et al. (2009) to form the experience after purchasing. 2.3.5 Decomposed Theory of planned behavior In 1995, Taylor and Todd demonstrated that better comprehension of the relationship between beliefs and antecedent of intention need to be combined as attitudinal beliefs as DTPB as shown in 2.5. They argued that DTPB is a strong model, more advanced and purer than the TRA and the TPB model. It was identified that, due to diffusion innovation theory, attitudinal beliefs contained three characteristics of an innovation that affect the adopt Analysis of E-commerce in Kuwait Analysis of E-commerce in Kuwait Chapter one: Introduction 1.1 Introduction This chapter provides general background information regarding online purchasing behavior with an insight into the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce in general and then specifically in Kuwait. The history of online shopping and internet retailers is presented to better understand e-purchasing behavior alongside a description of general theories of consumer online purchaser behavior and online shopping in Kuwait. The problem definition, research questions and methodology and limitations of the study are then presented, concluding with an outline of the thesis structure. With advances in technology, specifically in the field of electronics and telecommunications, direct business and commerce with new retail approaches have emerged in recent decades to transform the business world. Due to the increase in the number of internet users and developing network technology, new forms of trade have grown from these advances particularly in Electronic Commerce (EC) a term introduced by Kalakota and Whinston in 1997. Electronic commerce has become one of the primary characteristics of the internet era and a significant method of doing business. According to Jelassi and Enders (2005) EC includes e-trading of digital and physical goods all trading steps: online marketing, online ordering, e-payment and distribution. Kalakota and Whinston (1997) pointed out that EC has two forms: business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B). According to Molla and Licker (2001) B2C retailers offer their products and services to their customers. In the last decade, Kha lifa and Liu (2003) stated that ‘we have witnessed a substantial growth of internet based on services, both from traditional companies and pure internet business that are developing online services. Despite apparent growth there are no reliable statistics concerning E-commerce in Kuwait. However there are indications that the volume of e-commerce in Kuwait is growing slowly as discussed by Al-Sabah (2009) Kuwait Financial Forum, the Central Bank Governor stating We expect growth but so far we have not found a proper to be estimated for 2010, it depends on so many variables. In research shown in Economist Information in 2006 involving over 100 countries regarding availability of e-commerce, Kuwait came 50th. As the business world recognised the advantages of such socioeconomic changes, Kuwait began to take note of the advantages of electronic trading and commerce including the set up and development of measurements of electronic trading facilities and venues across the country (Al-Shati, 2009). As e-commerce is newly introduced in Kuwait, in order for Kuwaiti firms to reach world standards there needs to be research in different contexts of e-commerce such as online retailing to utilize opportunities and avoid risk. As observed by Lin (2003) the key to success in e-commerce depends on knowing customers and studying a customers viewpoint. The internet has singlehandedly created a concept shift away from more traditional methods of shopping. Studies by Joines et al. (2003) indicate the number of internet users is constantly increasing which signifies online purchasing is also increasing. Oppenheim and Ward (2006) agreed with Joines et al. (2003) explaining rapid increase was due to the growth of use of broadband technology combined with a change in consumer behaviour. Hollensen (2004) added that the internet has developed into a new distribution channel and evolution of this channel and e-commerce. Constantinides (2004) pointed out that in the influence of the consumer the first step was to identify certain impact aspects when purchasing online regarded as dimensions. Numerous and varied studies have been conducted worldwide to identify the advantages and disadvantages of e-shopping. Bridges and Florsheim (2008) argue that online shopping has advantages for both consumers and retailers. From a consumers point of view they found e-shopping allows a lower price, different alternatives of products/services, and customized products. Additionally they established retailers benefited from online shopping as it allowed them to reach a maximum number of customers, reduce communication costs and rapid transportation. However, e-shopping has also been criticized as online shopping may be considered non-trust worthy due to concerns of security of privacy (personal and financial information), lack of examination of the products, lack of human interaction and a concern the quality of the products will not reach customer expectation. From a retailer perspective the disadvantages of online shopping are providing high quality and creating special services can be very costly for the firm and may not be a good incentive to make consumers purchase (Kim and Forsythe (2009) and Lee et al. (2006). Whether it is a traditional market or online market, Hollensen (2004) pointed out that the retailer should understand the online consumer purchasing behaviour and how individuals make decision and buying choices. Therefore, Kotler and Armstrong (2007) stated that the marketers have developed different theories that can explain why consumers interpret information provided by e-retailer in a certain way, and thereby understand certain behaviours. Several authors have set out different definitions of consumer behaviour. According to Dr. Perner â€Å"consumer behaviour is study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society†. Hollensen (2004) and Constantinides (2004) agreed that consumer online purchasing behaviour is a process of various factors and influences experienced by a consumer before fin ally purchasing products online. Online consumer behaviour researchers have therefore examined the adoption of technology for e-purchasing in different aspects. There appears to be no constant model of online purchasing adoption and behaviour as it depends on the nature of adoption as influenced by characteristics or social issues; Theory of Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Roger (1983). In order to investigate consumer online purchasing behaviour, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) are considered dominant theories to measure online purchase intention and attitude behaviour, with Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) (Taylor and Todd 1995) the extended TPB. On the other hand, one essential model for development technology usage perspective is the Theory of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Davis et al. (1989), which developed into the Online Shopping Acceptance Model (OSAM) (Zhou et al. (2007). E-commerce researchers have measured different approaches for understanding online consumer behavior. Chen and Corkindale (2008) and Hernandez et al. (2009[a]) measured factors that influence consumers online purchasing behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology. Moreover, other authors examined trait attributes, situational factors, web site quality, and individual factors and influences on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online (Monsuwe et al. (2004); Liao and Shi (2009); and Vazquez and Xu (2009)). Chen and Crokindale (2008) agreed attitude and intention have a strong relationship with acceptance of technology and the decision of purchasing online. In addition, innovation characteristics were considered significant factors that influence of technology adoption and purchasing behavior (Rogers, 1983). Therefore in order to understand online purchasing behavior it is important to measure different factors that may influence e-shoppers and determine online shopping based on insight from technology adoption innovation diffusion literature. This study will therefore present the Liu Model (2004) using it to identify factors that influence Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online. It will also measure the relationship between characteristics of internet retailers/consumers and characteristics of innovation, allowing the research to examine the impacts of these characteristics on consumer decision making and then purchasing behavior. 1.2 Online purchasing 1.2.1 History of Online Shopping In the 1990s online shopping emerged as a technological breakthrough and novelty in the business arena. Strengthening year on year in 1994 the first of its kind, an online bank was opened and Pizza Hut offered pizza ordering on their web page. Netscape then presented Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) to secure transactions, an essential feature of e-shopping. In 1995 Bezos launched Amazon.com, one of the most successful online businesses worldwide, followed by ‘e-bay an online auction site. By 1997 an estimated 41 million people were shopping online. With advances in technology in 1998, electronic postage stamps were introduced, whereby individuals could download and print stamps after paying a fee. In 1999, with the first online shop in the UK, The Virtual Mall was also launched, considered the first UK graphical internet shopping mall. The online shopping market developed rapidly from this point as the consumer gained in confidence and knowledge. In 1991, Kuwait University connected all university campuses together with the internet using International Business Machine (IBM) then known as BITNET with the help of Ministry of Communication (MOC) university campuses together. This network was limited to e-mail and other minor services. The National Science Foundation (NSF) agreed to expand the internet services to Kuwait in 1992 (Hussain, 2003). 1.2.2 Kuwaiti Consumer Attitudes Towards Online Shopping Online shopping is a relatively recent phenomenon that has gradually expanded worldwide reaching Kuwait. Compared to traditional stores, e-shopping is far from the target customer in efficacy and provides significant advantages in time saving and low costs. Although developing online shopping in Kuwait advances slowly, it is establishing a solid base as it incorporates a certain lifestyle, is a convenient option and its adventurous nature is attractive to Kuwaiti youths. With these factors increasingly dominant in daily routine, purchasing online has become a natural option in countries such as the USA and economic areas of the EU and the GCC ( Maarafy et al. 2007). Common products selling in Kuwait online are from the USA, the UAE and Asia. According to Forrester research (2008), Global e-commerce spending in 2000 was 132 $ billion, and expected to spend more than 1 trillion by 2012. In GCC capitals, the usage of online shopping behavior is different in the USA compared with and European and Asia Pacific cities. In Kuwait the online shopping concept is relatively in its early stages, however the adoption of online purchasing is expected to grow continually in coming years. With a high level of penetration in neighboring countries online such as Saudi Arabia and UAE, Kuwait will not be far from this diffusion of web shopping. Among the GCC, Kuwait lies 3rd with 10.7% in terms of e-commerce penetration, against 25.1% UAE and 14.3% in Saudi Arabia (Field, (2008)). According to recent worldwide research, as shown in Table 1.1, Kuwaits internet user growth has jumped from 5.8% of the population in 2000 to over 34% in 2008 and five times more users in the same time period and with further growth expected. Table1.1: Growth Internet Users in Kuwait Year Users population % population 2000 150,000 2,424,422 5.8% 2003 567,000 2,530,012 22.4.% 2005 600,000 2,630,775 22.8% 2008 900,000 2,596,799 34.7% 2009 (estimated) Above 900,000 2,692,526 33.4% Source: world wide statistics.com According to Al-Bahar (2009), Kuwait Consumer Adaptors online shopping distinguishes between local and international websites when purchasing online for many reasons. Kuwaiti consumer purchasing online and local websites are still in their infancy and under development. Thus, consumers are oriented to external websites they have established reputations, are trustworthy and provide an assurance of quality of their products. Express delivery firms such as Aramex and DHL compete to provide their services for delivery products in efficacy and effectiveness to encourage customers to e-purchase (Al-Abdullah, 2009). However, according to Al-Awan, (2008) e-shopping in the Kuwait market is still in its development stage through lack of organization. In order to enlighten and educate consumers, huge effort needs to be made with responsibility on the retailer to reach their maximum number of potential customers in order to realize value. Recently online businesses have started to establish themselves as limited e-firms providing products and services for Kuwaiti customers. 1.3 Problem definition E-commerce penetration: With the adoption of Kuwaiti consumer online purchasing low, the penetration of e-commerce in Kuwait remains relatively slow with a lack of studies relating to Kuwaiti e-shopping adoption. Consumer e-purchasing awareness: Due to a lack of consumer awareness of online shopping it has not been used widely in Kuwait. E-retailer strategies: As online selling is different to offline selling, it is necessary to fully understand consumer behavior in order to set up business strategies for the long term. In addition the rapid development of technology related to the internet enhances the shopping experience and encourages potential customers to purchase online. It is therefore critical for e-retailers to identify what factors influence the consumer when e-shopping. 1.4 Research objectives The overall objective of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of online purchasing behavior in Kuwait and factors affecting their buying decision process. This study is therefore focusing on the following objectives: To investigate the key factors affecting online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers. To explore the impact of the decision making process on Kuwaiti consumers purchasing behavior. To determine the relationship between factors influencing purchasing behavior and the decision making process. 1.5 Research Questions To fulfill the purpose of this research and reach the stated objectives related to consumer purchase online behavior the following research questions need to be addressed: What are the main factors influencing Kuwaiti customers online purchasing? How do these factors affect online purchasing behavior? What is the impact of the decision making process on consumer online purchasing behavior? What is the relationship between factors influencing behavior and the decision making process for e-shopping? 1.6 Research methodology This studys approach is deductive, because it measures factors that affect online shopping to explain Kuwaiti consumer online behavior taken from previous studies in different countries. It is mainly explanatory, developing a deeper understanding of the online purchasing behavior of Kuwaiti consumers while investigating varied opinions related to local e-commerce, alongside which factors affect their purchasing behavior. To a certain extent it is exploratory because of a lack of previous research in the online purchase behavior in Kuwait and Gulf region. The study is also mildly descriptive due to previous research of online market phenomena conducted in different countries and extended to Kuwait. Moreover, this research is quantitative in nature using primary data for the survey questionnaire as the main tool of data collection in order to discuss online Kuwaiti consumer purchase behavior. The questionnaire was randomly distributed either in person or through email. The total sample size 500 was distributed in Kuwaiti firms, ministries, universities and public places with 360 respondents. The data collected from the questionnaire is then used to identify relationships and connections between these variables to achieve the studys objectives. 1.7 Limitations In the course of this research a number of limitations were identified as follows: As the research examines consumer online shopping behavior without specifying the type of product exchanged whether tangible or intangible, it is limited in its scope. This study is limited to selection factors covering aspects of Kuwaiti consumer online purchase behavior disregarding other variables of satisfaction, trust, social aspects and situational factors. As with all research using survey data the sample may not be fully representative of the actual behavior in the population, as it is impossible to directly compare our data with data collected on the State of Kuwait level on online purchasing behavior due to time factors. Investigation focuses on online consumer behavior mainly from the customers perspective rather than the retailers perspective. This study evaluates only the online adoption purchasing behavior without evaluation of service quality offered by distinct websites. With a lack of previous research in this topic in Kuwait and the Gulf region, there is little, if any, comparative literature review or use as a framework. 1.8 Thesis structure In the first chapter; an overview of the research area is given, introducing e-commerce in general, then in Kuwait. This is followed by a presentation of the country relevance, the problem definition, the research objectives and questions, the research methodology and the limitations of the study. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of relevant literature concerning the research to draw an understanding of dominant theories that explain online consumer behavior, followed by factors that influence consumer online purchase with an integrated consumer making decision process. Chapter Three covers the research design and methodology exploring the methodology of the strategy of collecting data and analysis of the survey questionnaire to achieve the objectives. In Chapter Four, data analysis presents the empirical data collected with analysis and a survey discussion of the results. Finally in Chapter Five conclusions drawn from the overall study are summarized with recommendations made for future research in the subject area. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction In this chapter an overview and examination of theories of adoption and online technology acceptance behavior from a global perspective is presented, with a comprehensive review of relevant studies conducted on consumer behavior purchasing online with the decision making process. Interactivity is considered a primary principle for the World Wide Web (WWW) with Lee et al. (2006) arguing that â€Å"interactivity is the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time†. The WWW allows unprecedented access to information and markets which has impacted societies globally with people able to search for information and/or purchase product/service online. Factors influencing consumer online purchasing behavior have been explored between 2004/09. Ha and Stoel (2004), Lee et al. (2006) and Hernandez et al. (2009) [b] analyzed the online behavior from the perspective of innovation adoption and accepting technology by identifying the consumer acceptance of innovativeness and frequency of shopping online. Lin and Wang (2008) focused on the decision making process arguing that consumers depend on their experience with repeat shopping. Broekhuizen and Huizingh (2009) agreed adding experience will lead to a strong relationship between different variables (such as saving time/effort, enjoyment and price attractiveness) and intention to purchase. The research of Monsuwe et al. (2004) and Liao and Shi (2009) explored situational factors, trait attributes, individual factors and website quality and impact on attitude and intention of consumer purchasing online. This review will therefore cover wide-ranging theories considering the features and benefits of numerous models proposed by such authors studying online consumer behavior. 2.2 Technology readiness and Self-Services Technologies While customer innovation adoption behavior and diffusion of innovations have been investigated for decades, recent interest has turned toward Self-Service Technologies (SSTs). SSTs involves new service access provided via new channels to meet customer demand in an effective and efficient way. Many technological innovations face resistance from customers, due to a lack of experience and uncertainty. Therefore research involves varied measurements such as: innovation characteristics, service quality, individual differences, ease of use and usefulness. Liljander et al. (2006) agreed personal traits suggest influence on customer adoption of SSTs. A study by Parasurman (2000), presented the attitudinal measurement â€Å"Technology Readiness (TR), peoples propensity to embrace and use new technologies for accomplishing goals in home life and at work† stating TR is considered a factor influencing SSTs. The same author explained an individuals positive or negative feeling toward tech nology is dominant identifying TR consists of multi-measurements of: Insecurity, Discomfort, Innovativeness and Optimism. The latter, Optimism refers to the positive view of technology and beliefs of control that enable users to increase convenience, efficiency and flexibility, while, Innovativeness is peoples tendency to open up to technology. Discomfort is an individuals perceived lack of control of technology and has a strong negative influence on SSTs. Insecurity refers to lack of trust in technology and its ability to work effectively. Notably, optimism and innovativeness are considered highly TR individual contributors, with discomfort and flexibility considered to have high level inhibitor attributes decreasing TR. Liljander et al. (2006) proved in their research a positive effect of TR on customers attitude towards using SSTs and their website evaluation, finding technology linked with convenience, freedom and control as vital when building positive attitudes towards using S STs. 2.3 Original theories of consumer online behavior Having reviewed numerous forms of literature no singular constant model has been identified for innovation diffusion and adoption. Innovation technology depends on the nature of adoption influenced by social theory or characteristics of innovation such as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) devised by Davis et al. (1989).Therefore diffusion theory and other factors have been widely used to guide consumer behavior research. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are dominant theories examining consumers online purchase intention and behavior. TAM is considered an initial model for technology usage development, as it is customized to understand the adoption of computer-based technology in the workplace and is used in many studies. Conversely other researchers criticized TAM, because it explores simply the technology side. TRA has evolved from TAM, determining individual attitude toward and behavioral intention to use this new technology. TPB is considered another update from TRA. Theory of Planned Behavior identifies the behavioral intention of purchase online influence with its attitude to technology. Rogers (1983) created a Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) that illustrates adoption of innovation dominant over time in social systems. This theory depends on critical elements, the time of adoption and characteristics of innovation. 2.3.1 Technology acceptance model By using Theory of Reasoned Action as a theoretical base Davis et al. (1989) created a Technology Acceptance Model. TAM is identified a viable paradigm for examining consumer adoption for the new technology and information technology. The genuine TAM determined the actual use of technology, attitude toward using this technology connected with beliefs to define behavioral intention to use new technology as explained by Liu (2004) and illustrated in 2.1. TAM focused on beliefs about the usefulness and ease of use to be a main role in technology adoption behavior. Perceived Usefulness (PU) refers to the degree of potential individual perception that use of new technology will enhance improving performance Davis et al. (1989). Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) is identified as an individual perception of using technology not requiring extra effort. Perceived Enjoyment was added later by Davis et al. (1992) and considered â€Å"essential motivation in adoption of new technology, the extent to which the activity of using computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated†. In TAM, behavioral intention to new technology usage was determined by a persons attitude toward using this technology. In addition TAM evolved with an updated version proposed in 2000 by Venkatesh and Davis called TAM2. This new model was influenced by subjective norms, image and output quality. Having examined PU, PEOU and enjoyment in different shopping experiences, Lee et al. (2006) and Bridges and Florsheim (2008) found that seeking hedonic benefit depends on perceived enjoyment through online experience. Hedonic elements may encourage internet use, but not necessarily online buying. Furthermore, an individual consumer may be oriented to seek experiential value through enjoyable browsing or shopping online or for their own fun experience. Seeking utilitarian benefits also relies on perceived ease of use and satisfactory outcomes, in addition to influencing the purchase directly. Utilitarian orientation defined by Bellenger and Korgaonker (1980), Babin et al. (1994) and To et al. (2007) observes orientation or motivation seeking instrumental value to minimize time and effort shopping and cost saving or seeking convenience. Acquired benefit depends on whether the mission of shopping is completed or not. The e-retailers focus providing utilitarian benefits more than hedonic benefits will increase or be completed efficiently during the process of online buying and future intention. 2.3.2 online shopping acceptance model Zhou et al. (2007) proposed an extension model of TAM called â€Å"Online Shopping Acceptance Model† (OSAM). This model considers a general view of online purchasing acceptance from the consumers perspective. These authors also pointed out that in spite of TAM Davis et al. (1989) being broadly used to examine online purchasing environment, it does not analyze specific online shopping characteristics. Therefore OSAM integrated consumer factors in traditional markets and theories may be added to TAM factors to re-examine the issue in the context of online shopping as showed in 2.2. Moreover, OSAM have been developed to predict and explore consumer acceptance e-purchasing by incorporating the beliefs, intention, and attitude behavior relationship into the perspective of perceived usefulness which was replaced by perceived outcomes to cover potential benefits and e-shopping risks. Shopping orientation and motivation have been added from traditional market factors considered antece dents of online purchasing intention and online experience as factors that construct during navigation of e-shopping sites. Also, satisfaction as mediators between behavior and intention has been added. OSAM considers a strong predictor of continue intention to purchasing more than perceived usefulness. Furthermore, this model includes consumer demographics and normative beliefs with their influence on e-purchasing intention. Exploring the development of TAM by introducing OSAM will enhance our understanding of different factors that affect consumer behavior intention. 2.3.3 Theory of reasoned action Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) formulated a â€Å"Theory of Reasoned Action† (TRA), which illustrates behaviors expressed by individual intention to perform a behavior from psychological social factors and aims to examine measurements of that behavior. Based on Marshall et al. (2009) and Lee and Park (2009), they pointed out correlations between beliefs, subjective norms and attitude affects on formation of behavioral individual intention. This intention is influenced by subjective norms referring to the individuals perception with outside influences to perform (or not) a specific behavior to purchase as illustrated in 2.3. While attitude refers to an individual attitude behavior, negative or positive, toward adoption of innovation and brand overall which creates their beliefs about the consequences of adopting and the brands attributes (Jobber, 2004). Beliefs are defined by the persons subjective probability that performing a particular behavior will produce specific results. Four types of belief attitude towards to e-shopping were identified by Vijayasarathy (2002); shopping experience, product perception, customer services and customer risk. This model therefore suggests that external stimuli influence attitudes by modifying the structure of the persons beliefs (Ajzan and Fishbein, 1980 and Ajzen, 1991). Further, TRA provides a strong theoretical basis for studying motivation related decision-making. Using this theory is expected to enhance our understanding toward attitudes and behavioral intention of online shoppers. 2.3.4 Theory of planned behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) can be appraised as an extension of TRA according to Ajzen (1985) used to predict buying behavior based on Bagozzi and Kimmel (1995) and De Cannià ¨re et al. (2009). A central element of this theory is the individual intention to perform a given behavior as shown in 2.4. Ajzen (1991) identified intention as ‘how individuals are willing to try and how much effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior. The same author and Chen and Corkindale (2008) state this theory includes an additional element which is an individual perceived behavioral control (PBC). Compeau and Higgins (1995) cited by Dennis et al. (2009) defined it as a judgment of ones ability to use a computer. PBC is compatible with Banduras (1977, 1982) concept of â€Å"perceived self-efficacy which is concerned with judgments of how well an individual can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations†. In PBC attitude and subje ctive norms factors can predict intention and behavior. According to TPB, PBC together with intention can be used directly to predict behavioral achievement. This model proposes the intention impact and mediates among these factors: 1) intentions are the immediate antecedent of behavior, 2) fully mediate on impact of attitude towards behavior and 3) intentions partially mediate the impact of perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) as illustrated in 2.4. Furthermore, Ajzen stated that the relative importance of predictors in the TPB would be different among behaviors and situations. On the other hand, TPB components can be used according to De Cannià ¨re et al. (2009) to form the experience after purchasing. 2.3.5 Decomposed Theory of planned behavior In 1995, Taylor and Todd demonstrated that better comprehension of the relationship between beliefs and antecedent of intention need to be combined as attitudinal beliefs as DTPB as shown in 2.5. They argued that DTPB is a strong model, more advanced and purer than the TRA and the TPB model. It was identified that, due to diffusion innovation theory, attitudinal beliefs contained three characteristics of an innovation that affect the adopt